Managing Perioperative Pain After Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) Reconstruction: Perspectives from a Sports Medicine Surgeon

References

• Di Benedetto P, Di Benedetto E, Fiocchi A, Beltrame A, Causero A. Causes of failure of anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction and revision surgical strategies. Knee Surg Relat Res. 2016;28(4):319–324. doi:10.5792/ksrr.16.007
   Google Scholar
• Jansson H, Narvy SJ, Mehran N. Perioperative pain management strategies for anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. JBJS Rev. 2018;6(3):e3. doi:10.2106/JBJS.RVW.17.00059
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Sa D, Shanmugaraj A, Weidman M, et al. All-inside anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction-a systematic review of techniques, outcomes, and complications. J Knee Surg. 2018;31(9):895–904. doi:10.1055/s-0038-1627446
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moutzouros V, Jildeh TR, Khalil LS, et al. A Multimodal protocol to diminish pain following common orthopedic sports procedures: can we eliminate postoperative opioids? Arthroscopy. 2020;36(8):2249–2257. doi:10.1016/j.arthro.2020.04.018
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koh IJ, Chang CB, Seo ES, Kim SJ, Seong SC, Kim TK. Pain management by periarticular multimodal drug injection after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: a randomized, controlled study. Arthroscopy. 2012;28(5):649–657. doi:10.1016/j.arthro.2011.10.015
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chmielewski TL, Jones D, Day T, Tillman SM, Lentz TA, George SZ. The association of pain and fear of movement/reinjury with function during anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction rehabilitation. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2008;38(12):746–753. doi:10.2519/jospt.2008.2887
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davey MS, Hurley ET, Anil U, et al. Pain Management strategies after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: a systematic review with network meta-analysis. Arthroscopy. 2021;37(4):1290–1300.e1296. doi:10.1016/j.arthro.2021.01.023
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malige A, Bram JT, Maguire KJ, McNeely LW, Ganley TJ, Williams BA. Decreased prescribing of postoperative opioids in pediatric ACL reconstruction: treatment trends at a single center. Orthop J Sports Med. 2021;9(2):2325967120979993. doi:10.1177/2325967120979993
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trasolini NA, McKnight BM, Dorr LD, Opioid T. Crisis and the Orthopedic surgeon. J Arthroplasty. 2018;33(11):3379–3382.e3371. doi:10.1016/j.arth.2018.07.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris BJ, Mir HR. The opioid epidemic: impact on orthopaedic surgery. JAAOS. 2015;23(5):267–271. doi:10.5435/JAAOS-D-14-00163
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soffin EM, Waldman SA, Stack RJ, Liguori GA. An evidence-based approach to the prescription opioid epidemic in orthopedic surgery. Anesth Analg. 2017;125(5):1704–1713. doi:10.1213/ANE.0000000000002433
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baverel L, Cucurulo T, Lutz C, et al. Anesthesia and analgesia methods for outpatient anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Orthop Traumatol Surg Res. 2016;102(8s):S251–s255. doi:10.1016/j.otsr.2016.08.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck JJ, Cline K, Sangiorgio S, Serpa R, Shifflett KA, Bowen RE. Prospective Study of acute opioid use after adolescent anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction shows no effect from patient- or surgical-related factors. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2020;28(7):293–300. doi:10.5435/JAAOS-D-18-00766
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson AB, Balazs GC, Brooks DI, Potter BK, Forsberg JA, Dickens JF. Prescription patterns and risk factors for prolonged opioid dependence in elective anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction in a military population. Orthop J Sports Med. 2020;8(6):2325967120926489. doi:10.1177/2325967120926489
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yari M, Saeb M, Golfam P, Makhloogh Z. Analgesic efficacy of intra-articular morphine after arthroscopic knee surgery in sport injury patients. J Inj Violence Res. 2013;5(2):84–88. doi:10.5249/jivr.v5i2.303
   Google Scholar
• Brandsson S, Karlsson J, Morberg P, Rydgren B, Eriksson BI, Hedner T. Intraarticular morphine after arthroscopic ACL reconstruction: a double-blind placebo-controlled study of 40 patients. Acta Orthop Scand. 2000;71(3):280–285. doi:10.1080/000164700317411889
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pinheiro LQ, Neri Junior E, Fernandes RM, Cardozo RT, Rezende PR. Reconstruction of the anterior cruciate ligament: comparison of analgesia using intrathecal morphine, intra-articular morphine and intra-articular levobupivacaine. Rev Bras Ortop. 2015;50(3):300–304. doi:10.1016/j.rbo.2014.04.005
   Google Scholar
• Karlsson J, Rydgren B, Eriksson B, et al. Postoperative analgesic effects of intra-articular bupivacaine and morphine after arthroscopic cruciate ligament surgery. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 1995;3(1):55–59. doi:10.1007/BF01553527
   Google Scholar
• Wang X, Jia D, Chen X, Xu Y. Comparison of intra-articular low-dose sufentanil, ropivacaine, and combined sufentanil and ropivacaine on post-operative analgesia of isolated anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2013;21(5):1140–1145. doi:10.1007/s00167-012-2326-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hosseini H, Abrisham SM, Jomeh H, Kermani-Alghoraishi M, Ghahramani R, Mozayan MR. The comparison of intraarticular morphine-bupivacaine and tramadol-bupivacaine in postoperative analgesia after arthroscopic anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2012;20(9):1839–1844. doi:10.1007/s00167-011-1791-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Senthilkumaran S, Tate R, Read JR, Sutherland AG. Intra-articular morphine and bupivicaine for post-operative analgesia in anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: a prospective randomised controlled trial. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2010;18(6):731–735. doi:10.1007/s00167-009-0912-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell BC, Siow MY, Pennock AT, Edmonds EW, Bastrom TP, Chambers HG. Intra-articular morphine and ropivacaine injection provides efficacious analgesia as compared with femoral nerve block in the first 24 hours after ACL reconstruction: results from a bone-patellar tendon-bone graft in an adolescent population. Orthop J Sports Med. 2021;9(3):2325967120985902. doi:10.1177/2325967120985902
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Okoroha KR, Keller RA, Jung EK, et al. Pain assessment after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: bone-patellar tendon-bone versus hamstring tendon autograft. Orthop J Sports Med. 2016;4(12):2325967116674924. doi:10.1177/2325967116674924
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao AG, Chan PH, Prentice HA, Paxton EW, Funahashi TT, Maletis GB. Risk factors for opioid use after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Am J Sports Med. 2019;47(9):2130–2137. doi:10.1177/0363546519854754
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forlenza EM, Lavoie-Gagne O, Lu Y, et al. Preoperative Opioid use predicts prolonged postoperative opioid use and inferior patient outcomes following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Arthroscopy. 2020;36(10):2681–2688.e2681. doi:10.1016/j.arthro.2020.06.014
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anthony CA, Westermann RW, Bedard N, et al. Opioid demand before and after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Am J Sports Med. 2017;45(13):3098–3103. doi:10.1177/0363546517719226
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reid DBC, Shah KN, Shapiro BH, Ruddell JH, Akelman E, Daniels AH. Mandatory prescription limits and opioid utilization following orthopaedic surgery. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2019;101(10):e43. doi:10.2106/JBJS.18.00943
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunningham DJ, George SZ, Lewis BD. The impact of state level public policy, prescriber education, and patient factors on opioid prescribing in elective orthopedic surgery: findings from a tertiary, academic setting. Mayo Clin Proc Innov Qual Outcomes. 2021;5(1):23–34. doi:10.1016/j.mayocpiqo.2020.08.006
   Google Scholar
• Tetzlaff JE, Dilger JA, Abate J, Parker RD. Preoperative intra-articular morphine and bupivacaine for pain control after outpatient arthroscopic anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 1999;24(3):220–224. doi:10.1097/00115550-199924030-00007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kristensen PK, Pfeiffer-Jensen M, Storm JO, Thillemann TM. Local infiltration analgesia is comparable to femoral nerve block after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction with hamstring tendon graft: a randomised controlled trial. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2014;22(2):317–323. doi:10.1007/s00167-013-2399-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mehdi SA, Dalton DJ, Sivarajan V, Leach WJ. BTB ACL reconstruction: femoral nerve block has no advantage over intraarticular local anaesthetic infiltration. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2004;12(3):180–183. doi:10.1007/s00167-003-0464-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirkham KR, Grape S, Martin R, Albrecht E. Analgesic efficacy of local infiltration analgesia vs. femoral nerve block after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Anaesthesia. 2017;72(12):1542–1553. doi:10.1111/anae.14032
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yung EM, Brull R, Albrecht E, Joshi GP, Abdallah FW. Evidence Basis for regional anesthesia in ambulatory anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: part III: local instillation analgesia-a systematic review and meta-analysis. Anesth Analg. 2019;128(3):426–437. doi:10.1213/ANE.0000000000002599
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kurosaka K, Tsukada S, Nakayama H, et al. Periarticular injection versus femoral nerve block for pain relief after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: a randomized controlled trial. Arthroscopy. 2018;34(1):182–188. doi:10.1016/j.arthro.2017.08.307
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vorobeichik L, Brull R, Joshi GP, Abdallah FW. Evidence basis for regional anesthesia in ambulatory anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: part I-femoral nerve block. Anesth Analg. 2019;128(1):58–65. doi:10.1213/ANE.0000000000002854
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Min H, Ouyang Y, Chen G. Anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction with the use of adductor canal block can achieve similar pain control as femoral nerve block. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2020;28(8):2675–2686. doi:10.1007/s00167-020-05933-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams BA, Kentor ML, Vogt MT, et al. Reduction of verbal pain scores after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction with 2-day continuous femoral nerve block: a randomized clinical trial. Anesthesiology. 2006;104(2):315–327. doi:10.1097/00000542-200602000-00018
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peng P, Claxton A, Chung F, Chan V, Miniaci A, Krishnathas A. Femoral nerve block and ketorolac in patients undergoing anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Can J Anaesth. 1999;46(10):919–924. doi:10.1007/BF03013124
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mulroy MF, Larkin KL, Batra MS, Hodgson PS, Owens BD. Femoral nerve block with 0.25% or 0.5% bupivacaine improves postoperative analgesia following outpatient arthroscopic anterior cruciate ligament repair. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2001;26(1):24–29. doi:10.1097/00115550-200101000-00007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krych A, Arutyunyan G, Kuzma S, Levy B, Dahm D, Stuart M. Adverse effect of femoral nerve blockade on quadriceps strength and function after ACL reconstruction. J Knee Surg. 2015;28(1):83–88.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luo TD, Ashraf A, Dahm DL, Stuart MJ, McIntosh AL. Femoral nerve block is associated with persistent strength deficits at 6 months after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction in pediatric and adolescent patients. Am J Sports Med. 2015;43(2):331–336. doi:10.1177/0363546514559823
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith JH, Belk JW, Kraeutler MJ, Houck DA, Scillia AJ, McCarty EC. Adductor canal versus femoral nerve block after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: a systematic review of level I randomized controlled trials comparing early postoperative pain, opioid requirements, and quadriceps strength. Arthroscopy. 2020;36(7):1973–1980. doi:10.1016/j.arthro.2020.03.040
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Everhart JS, Hughes L, Abouljoud MM, Swank K, Lewis C, Flanigan DC. Femoral nerve block at time of ACL reconstruction causes lasting quadriceps strength deficits and may increase short-term risk of re-injury. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2020;28(6):1894–1900. doi:10.1007/s00167-019-05628-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El Ahl MS. Femoral nerve block versus adductor canal block for postoperative pain control after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: a randomized controlled double blind study. Saudi J Anaesth. 2015;9(3):279–282. doi:10.4103/1658-354X.154708
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey L, Griffin J, Elliott M, et al. Adductor Canal nerve versus femoral nerve blockade for pain control and quadriceps function following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction with patellar tendon autograft: a prospective randomized trial. Arthroscopy. 2019;35(3):921–929. doi:10.1016/j.arthro.2018.10.149
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghodki PS, Shalu PS, Sardesai SP. Ultrasound-guided adductor canal block versus femoral nerve block for arthroscopic anterior cruciate ligament repair under general anesthesia. J Anaesthesiol Clin Pharmacol. 2018;34(2):242–246.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bourne MH. Analgesics for orthopedic postoperative pain. Am J Orthop (Belle Mead NJ). 2004;33(3):128–135.
   Google Scholar
• Beck PR, Nho SJ, Balin J, et al. Postoperative pain management after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. J Knee Surg. 2004;17(1):18–23. doi:10.1055/s-0030-1247142
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dahl V, Spreng UJ, Waage M, Raeder JC. Short stay and less pain after ambulatory anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) repair: COX-2 inhibitor versus glucocorticoid versus both combined. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2012;56(1):95–101. doi:10.1111/j.1399-6576.2011.02584.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGuire DA, Sanders K, Hendricks SD. Comparison of ketorolac and opioid analgesics in postoperative ACL reconstruction outpatient pain control. Arthroscopy. 1993;9(6):653–661. doi:10.1016/S0749-8063(05)80501-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Popp JE, Sanko WA, Sinha AK, Kaeding CC. A comparison of ketorolac tromethamine/oxycodone versus patient-controlled analgesia with morphine in anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction patients. Arthroscopy. 1998;14(8):816–819. doi:10.1016/S0749-8063(98)70016-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Constantinescu DS, Campbell MP, Moatshe G, Vap AR. Effects of perioperative nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug administration on soft tissue healing: a systematic review of clinical outcomes after sports medicine orthopaedic surgery procedures. Orthopaedic j Sports Med. 2019;7(4) doi:10.1177/2325967119838873
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Secrist ES, Freedman KB, Ciccotti MG, Mazur DW, Hammoud S. Pain Management after outpatient anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Am J Sports Med. 2016;44(9):2435–2447. doi:10.1177/0363546515617737
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Onda A, Ogoshi A, Itoh M, Nakagawa T, Kimura M. Comparison of the effects of treatment with celecoxib, loxoprofen, and acetaminophen on postoperative acute pain after arthroscopic knee surgery: a randomized, parallel-group trial. J Orthop Sci. 2016;21(2):172–177. doi:10.1016/j.jos.2015.11.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mardani-Kivi M, Karimi Mobarakeh M, Haghighi M, et al. Celecoxib as a pre-emptive analgesia after arthroscopic knee surgery; a triple-blinded randomized controlled trial. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg. 2013;133(11):1561–1566. doi:10.1007/s00402-013-1852-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ge H, Liu C, Shrestha A, Wu P, Cheng B. Do nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs affect tissue healing after arthroscopic anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction? Med Sci Monitor. 2018;24:6038–6043. doi:10.12659/MSM.910942
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsai WC, Hsu CC, Chen CP, Chen MJ, Lin MS, Pang JH. Ibuprofen inhibition of tendon cell migration and down-regulation of paxillin expression. J Orthop Res. 2006;24(3):551–558. doi:10.1002/jor.20069
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsai WC, Tang FT, Hsu CC, Hsu YH, Pang JH, Shiue CC. Ibuprofen inhibition of tendon cell proliferation and upregulation of the cyclin kinase inhibitor p21CIP1. J Orthop Res. 2004;22(3):586–591. doi:10.1016/j.orthres.2003.10.014
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu Y, Li Y, Li FL, Li X, Zhuo HW, Jiang CY. Do different cyclooxygenase inhibitors impair rotator cuff healing in a rabbit model? Chin Med J. 2015;128(17):2354–2359. doi:10.4103/0366-6999.163379
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oh JH, Seo HJ, Lee YH, Choi HY, Joung HY, Kim SH. Do Selective COX-2 inhibitors affect pain control and healing after arthroscopic rotator cuff repair? A Preliminary Study. Am J Sports Med. 2018;46(3):679–686. doi:10.1177/0363546517744219
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li Q, Zhang Z, Cai Z. High-dose ketorolac affects adult spinal fusion: a meta-analysis of the effect of perioperative nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs on spinal fusion. Spine. 2011;36(7):E461–468. doi:10.1097/BRS.0b013e3181dfd163
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen MR, Dragoo JL. The effect of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs on tissue healing. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2013;21(3):540–549. doi:10.1007/s00167-012-2095-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blomquist J, Solheim E, Liavaag S, Baste V, Havelin LI. Do nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs affect the outcome of arthroscopic Bankart repair? Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2014;24(6):e510–514. doi:10.1111/sms.12233
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Proffen BL, Nielson JH, Zurakowski D, Micheli LJ, Curtis C, Murray MM. The Effect of perioperative ketorolac on the clinical failure rate of meniscal repair. Orthop J Sports Med. 2014;2:5. doi:10.1177/2325967114529537
   Google Scholar
• Peltoniemi MA, Hagelberg NM, Olkkola KT, Saari TI. Ketamine: a Review of clinical pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics in anesthesia and pain therapy. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2016;55(9):1059–1077. doi:10.1007/s40262-016-0383-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhu T, Gao Y, Xu X, Fu S, Lin W, Sun J. Effect of ketamine added to ropivacaine in nerve block for postoperative pain management in patients undergoing anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: a randomized trial. Clin Ther. 2020;42(5):882–891. doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2020.03.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Menigaux C, Fletcher D, Dupont X, Guignard B, Guirimand F, Chauvin M. The benefits of intraoperative small-dose ketamine on postoperative pain after anterior cruciate ligament repair. Anesth Analg. 2000;90(1):129–135. doi:10.1097/00000539-200001000-00029
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rahimzadeh P, Faiz SH, Ziyaeifard M, Niknam K. Effectiveness of adding ketamine to ropivacaine infusion via femoral nerve catheter after knee anterior cruciate ligament repair. J Res Med Sci. 2013;18(8):632–636.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaksch W, Lang S, Reichhalter R, Raab G, Dann K, Fitzal S. Perioperative small-dose S(+)-ketamine has no incremental beneficial effects on postoperative pain when standard-practice opioid infusions are used. Anesth Analg. 2002;94(4):981–986. doi:10.1097/00000539-200204000-00038
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin ZX, Woolf SK. Safety, efficacy, and cost-effectiveness of tranexamic acid in orthopedic surgery. Orthopedics. 2016;39(2):119–130. doi:10.3928/01477447-20160301-05
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiang ER, Chen KH, Wang ST, et al. Intra-articular injection of tranexamic acid reduced postoperative hemarthrosis in arthroscopic anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: a prospective randomized study. Arthroscopy. 2019;35(7):2127–2132. doi:10.1016/j.arthro.2019.02.018
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Felli L, Revello S, Burastero G, et al. Single intravenous administration of tranexamic acid in anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction to reduce postoperative hemarthrosis and increase functional outcomes in the early phase of postoperative rehabilitation: a randomized controlled trial. Arthroscopy. 2019;35(1):149–157. doi:10.1016/j.arthro.2018.07.050
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karaaslan F, Karaoğlu S, Yurdakul E. Reducing Intra-articular Hemarthrosis After Arthroscopic Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction by the Administration of Intravenous Tranexamic Acid: a Prospective, Randomized Controlled Trial. Am J Sports Med. 2015;43(11):2720–2726. doi:10.1177/0363546515599629
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ma R, Wu M, Li Y, et al. The comparative efficacies of intravenous administration and intra-articular injection of tranexamic acid during anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction for reducing postoperative hemarthrosis: a prospective randomized study. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2021;22(1):114. doi:10.1186/s12891-021-03990-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bahl V, Goyal A, Jain V, Joshi D, Chaudhary D. Effect of haemarthrosis on the rehabilitation of anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction–single bundle versus double bundle. J Orthop Surg Res. 2013;8:5. doi:10.1186/1749-799X-8-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ülgey A, Bayram A, Aksu R, Altuntaş R, Güney A, Güler G. Does Treatment with Dexmedetomidine Intra-articularly Improve Postoperative Pain and Rehabilitation after Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction? J Knee Surg. 2021;2:25487.
   Google Scholar
• Tompkins M, Plante M, Monchik K, Fleming B, Fadale P. The use of a non-benzodiazepine hypnotic sleep-aid (Zolpidem) in patients undergoing ACL reconstruction: a randomized controlled clinical trial. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2011;19(5):787–791. doi:10.1007/s00167-010-1368-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Hagan ET, Hübscher M, Miller CB, et al. Zolpidem reduces pain intensity postoperatively: a systematic review and meta-analysis of the effect of hypnotic medicines on post-operative pain intensity. Syst Rev. 2020;9(1):206. doi:10.1186/s13643-020-01458-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiffen PJ, Derry S, Bell RF, et al. Gabapentin for chronic neuropathic pain in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;6(6):Cd007938.
   Google Scholar
• Sills GJ. The mechanisms of action of gabapentin and pregabalin. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2006;6(1):108–113. doi:10.1016/j.coph.2005.11.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahearn B, Kumar A, Premkumar A, et al. Effect of Preoperative Gabapentin With a Concomitant Adductor Canal Block on Pain and Opioid Usage After Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction. Orthop J Sports Med. 2019;7(3):2325967119828357. doi:10.1177/2325967119828357
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mardani-Kivi M, Mobarakeh MK, Keyhani S, Motlagh KH, Ekhtiari KS. Is gabapentin effective on pain management after arthroscopic anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction? A triple blinded randomized controlled trial. Arch Bone Jt Surg. 2013;1(1):18–22.
   Google Scholar
• Cho EA, Kim N, Lee B, Song J, Choi YS. The Effect of Perioperative Pregabalin on Pain after Arthroscopic Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction: a Randomized Controlled Trial. J Clin Med. 2019;8(9):1426. doi:10.3390/jcm8091426
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kavak Akelma F, Baran Akkuş I, Altinsoy S, Özkan D, Ergil J. The effects of pregabalin and adductor canal block on postoperative pain in arthroscopic anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Turk J Med Sci. 2020;50(1):195–204.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nimmaanrat S, Tangtrakulwanish B, Klabklay P, Boonriong T. Perioperative administration of pregabalin in patients undergoing arthroscopic anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: does it help to relieve postoperative pain? J Med Assoc Thai. 2012;95(10):1297–1301.
   Google Scholar
• Chisholm MF, Cheng J, Fields KG, et al. Perineural dexamethasone with subsartorial saphenous nerve blocks in ACL reconstruction. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2017;25(4):1298–1306. doi:10.1007/s00167-016-4120-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar