Sympathetic Ophthalmia: Where Do We Currently Stand on Treatment Strategies?

References

• Lubin JR, Albert DM, Weinstein M. Sixty-five years of sympathetic ophthalmia. A clinicopathologic review of 105 cases (1913–1978). Ophthalmology. 1980;87(2):109–121. doi:10.1016/s0161-6420(80)35270-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams AM, Shepler AM, Chu CT, Nischal KK. Sympathetic ophthalmia presenting 5 days after penetrating injury. Am J Ophthalmol Case Rep. 2020;19:100816. doi:10.1016/j.ajoc.2020.100816
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zaharia MA, Lamarche J, Laurin M. Sympathetic uveitis 66 years after injury. Can J Ophthalmol. 1984;19(5):240–243.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goto H, Rao NA. Sympathetic ophthalmia and Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 1990;30(4):279–285. doi:10.1097/00004397-199030040-00014
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Albert DM, Diaz-Rohena R. A historical review of sympathetic ophthalmia and its epidemiology. Surv Ophthalmol. 1989;34(1):1–14. doi:10.1016/0039-6257(89)90125-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arevalo JF, Garcia RA, Al-Dhibi HA, Sanchez JG, Suarez-Tata L. Update on sympathetic ophthalmia. Middle East Afr J Ophthalmol. 2012;19(1):13–21. doi:10.4103/0974-9233.92111
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mackenzie W. A Practical Treatise on the Diseases of the Eye. Blanchard and Lea; 1855.
   Google Scholar
• Fuchs E. Ueber sympathisierende Entzundung (nebst Bemerkungen ueber serose traumatische Iritis. Graef Arch Clin Exp. 1905;3:365–456. doi:10.1007/BF01969717
   Google Scholar
• Varghese M, Raghavendra R. Dalen Fuch’s nodules and serous retinal detachment on optical coherence tomography in sympathetic ophthalmitis. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2013;61(5):245–246. doi:10.4103/0301-4738.113320
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elschnig A. Studien zur sympathischen ophthalmie. Graefes Arch Ophthalmol. 1910;76(3):509–546. doi:10.1007/BF01986363
   Google Scholar
• Wong VG, Anderson R, O’Brien PJ. Sympathetic ophthalmia and lymphocyte transformation. Am J Ophthalmol. 1971;72(5):960–966. doi:10.1016/0002-9394(71)91697-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan CC. Relationship between sympathetic ophthalmia, phacoanaphylatic endophthalmitis, and Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Ophthalmology. 1988;95(5):619–624. doi:10.1016/s0161-6420(88)33146-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao NA, Robin J, Hartmann D, Sweeney JA, Marak GE. The role of the penetrating wound in the development of sympathetic ophthalmia experimental observations. Arch Ophthalmol. 1983;101(1):102–104. doi:10.1001/archopht.1983.01040010104019
   Google Scholar
• Sugita S, Sagawa K, Mochizuki M, Shichijo S, Itoh K. Melanocyte lysis by cytotoxic T lymphocytes recognizing the MART-1 melanoma antigen in HLA-A2 patients with Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Int Immunol. 1996;8(5):799–803. doi:10.1093/intimm/8.5.799
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hammer H. Cellular hypersensitivity to uveal pigment confirmed by leucocyte migration tests in sympathetic ophthalmitis and the Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Br J Ophthalmol. 1974;58(9):773–776. doi:10.1136/bjo.58.9.773
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao NA, Wong VG. Aetiology of sympathetic ophthalmitis. Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K. 1981;101((Pt 3)(3)):357–360.
   Google Scholar
• Yoon JM, Cho GE, Kang SW. A case of sympathetic ophthalmia after 23-gauge transconjunctival sutureless vitrectomy. Korean J Ophthalmol. 2015;29(3):205–207. doi:10.3341/kjo.2015.29.3.205
   Google Scholar
• Kilmartin D, Dick A, Forrester J. Sympathetic ophthalmia risk following vitrectomy: should we counsel patients? Br J Ophthalmol. 2000;84(5):448–449. doi:10.1136/bjo.84.5.448
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tyagi M, Agarwal K, Reddy Pappuru RR, et al. Sympathetic ophthalmia after vitreoretinal surgeries: incidence, clinical presentations and outcomes of a rare disease. Semin Ophthalmol. 2019;34(3):157–162. doi:10.1080/08820538.2019.1610464
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jennings T, Tessler HH. Twenty cases of sympathetic ophthalmia. Br J Ophthalmol. 1989;73(2):140–145. doi:10.1136/bjo.73.2.140
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brouzas D, Koutsandrea C, Moschos M, Papadimitriou S, Ladas I, Apostolopoulos M. Massive choroidal hemorrhage after intravitreal administration of bevacizumab (Avastin) for AMD followed by controlateral sympathetic ophthalmia. Clin Ophthalmol. 2009;3:457–459. doi:10.2147/opth.s4641
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Harris D. Sympathetic ophthalmia following iridencleisis. Case report and incidence. Am J Ophthalmol. 1961;51:829–831. doi:10.1016/0002-9394(61)91821-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guerriero S, Montepara A, Ciracì L, Monno R, Cinquepalmi V, Vetrugno M. A case of sympathetic ophthalmia after a severe acanthamoeba keratitis. Eye Contact Lens. 2011;37(6):374–376. doi:10.1097/ICL.0b013e3182128e93
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buller AJ, Doris JP, Bonshek R, Brahma AK, Jones NP. Sympathetic ophthalmia following severe fungal keratitis. Eye. 2006;20(11):1306–1307. doi:10.1038/sj.eye.6702156
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang Y, Zhang M-N, Jiang C-H, Yao Y. Development of sympathetic ophthalmia following globe injury. Chin Med J. 2009;122(24):2961–2966.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khatri A, Timalsena S, Khatri BK, et al. A rare entity: sympathetic ophthalmia presumably after blunt trauma to the phthisical eye and optical coherence tomography angiography metrics to monitor response to treatment. Clin Case Rep. 2020;8(1):149–154. doi:10.1002/ccr3.2597
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patil VS, Surve A, Banerjee M, Kumar V. Sympathetic ophthalmia following blunt injury to phthisical eye. BMJ Case Rep. 2021;14(7):e242516. doi:10.1136/bcr-2021-242516
   Google Scholar
• Mukkamala LK, Soni N, Zarbin MA, Langer PD, Bhagat N. Posterior segment intraocular foreign bodies: a 10-year review. Oph Retina. 2017;1(4):272–277. doi:10.1016/j.oret.2017.01.007
   Google Scholar
• Shen J, Fang W, Jin X-H, Yao Y-F, Li Y-M. Sympathetic ophthalmia caused by a severe ocular chemical burn: a case report and literature review. Int J Clin Exp Med. 2015;8(2):2974–2978.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rahman Z, Ali S, Dutta Majumder P. Sympathetic ophthalmia following accidental burn with hot water involving the other eye. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2018;26(8):1225–1227. doi:10.1080/09273948.2017.1340960
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards TL, McKelvie P, Walland MJ. Sympathetic ophthalmia after diode laser cyclophotocoagulation: now an issue in informed consent. Can J Ophthalmol. 2014;49(4):e102–e104. doi:10.1016/j.jcjo.2014.05.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parvaresh MM, Falavarjani KG. Presumed sympathetic ophthalmia after scleral buckling surgery. Retin Cases Brief Rep. 2013;7(4):331–333. doi:10.1097/ICB.0b013e318290d70b
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brour J, Desjardins L, Lehoang P, et al. Sympathetic ophthalmia after proton beam irradiation for choroidal melanoma. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2012;20(4):273–276. doi:10.3109/09273948.2012.689072
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fries PD, Char DH, Crawford JB, Waterhouse W. Sympathetic ophthalmia complicating helium ion irradiation of a choroidal melanoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1987;105(11):1561–1564. doi:10.1001/archopht.1987.01060110107042
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ahmad N, Soong TK, Salvi S, Rudle PA, Rennie IG. Sympathetic ophthalmia after ruthenium plaque brachytherapy. Br J Ophthalmol. 2007;91(3):399–401. doi:10.1136/bjo.2006.102384
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tseng VL, Matoso A, Hofmann RJ. Sympathetic ophthalmia following enucleation. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2013;251(1):393–394. doi:10.1007/s00417-011-1866-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magalhães FP, Lavinsky D, Rossi LV, Barbosa L, Moraes N. Sympathetic ophthalmia after penetrating keratoplasty: a case report evaluated by spectral-domain optical coherence tomography. Retin Cases Brief Rep. 2012;6(1):11–15. doi:10.1097/ICB.0b013e3181f7f633
   Google Scholar
• Tripathy K, Mittal K, Chawla R. Sympathetic ophthalmia following a conjunctival flap procedure for corneal perforation. BMJ Case Rep. 2016;2016. doi:10.1136/bcr-2016-214344
   Google Scholar
• Soheilian M, Jabbarpourbonyadi M, Soheilian R, Peyman GA. Bilateral uveitis after phakic intraocular lens implantation and management with adalimumab. J Cataract Refract Surg. 2012;38(6):1094–1096. doi:10.1016/j.jcrs.2012.02.026
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green WR, Maumenee AE, Sanders TE, Smith ME. Sympathetic uveitis following evisceration. Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol. 1972;76(3):625–644.
   Google Scholar
• Letson HC. A case of sympathetic ophthalmia caused by basal iridectomy. Bull Kresge Eye Inst. 1954;5(2):56–58.
   Google Scholar
• Hiyama T, Harada Y, Kiuchi Y. Effective treatment of refractory sympathetic ophthalmia with glaucoma using adalimumab. Am J Ophthalmol Case Rep. 2019;14:1–4. doi:10.1016/j.ajoc.2019.01.009
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Heydon P, Hooper C, Lawlor M, Lee A. Sympathetic ophthalmia following cyclodialysis cleft repair. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2019;47(6):811–813. doi:10.1111/ceo.13488
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao N. Sympathetic ophthalmia. In: Retina: Medical Retina. St. Louis: CV Mosby; 1989:715–721.
   Google Scholar
• Gomi CF, Makdissi FF, Yamamoto JH, Olivalves E. Estudo epidemiologico das uveites [Epidemiological study of the uveitis]. Rev Med. 1997;76:101–108. Portuguese.
   Google Scholar
• Marak GE. Recent advances in sympathetic ophthalmia. Surv Ophthalmol. 1979;24(3):141–156. doi:10.1016/0039-6257(79)90018-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liddy L, Stuart J. Sympathetic ophthalmia in Canada. Can J Ophthalmol. 1972;7(2):157–159.
   Google Scholar
• Holland G. [Indication and timing of the removal of an injured eye]. Klin Monbl Augenheilkd. 1964;145:732–740. German.
   Google Scholar
• Gass JD. Sympathetic ophthalmia following vitrectomy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1982;93(5):552–558. doi:10.1016/s0002-9394(14)77368-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dutta Majumder P, Anthony E, George AE, Ganesh SK, Biswas J. Postsurgical sympathetic ophthalmia: retrospective analysis of a rare entity. Int Ophthalmol. 2018;38(6):2487–2493. doi:10.1007/s10792-017-0759-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang Y, Chan C-C. Gender differences in Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease and sympathetic ophthalmia. J Ophthalmol. 2014;2014:157803. doi:10.1155/2014/157803
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castiblanco CP, Adelman RA. Sympathetic ophthalmia. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2009;247(3):289–302. doi:10.1007/s00417-008-0939-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schachat AP, ed. Ryan’s Retina. 6th ed. Elsevier; 2018.
   Google Scholar
• Rao NA, Wacker WB, Marak GE. Experimental allergic uveitis: clinicopathologic features associated with varying doses of S antigen. Arch Ophthalmol. 1979;97(10):1954–1958. doi:10.1001/archopht.1979.01020020402028
   Google Scholar
• Reynard M, Shulman IA, Azen SP, Minckler DS. Histocompatibility antigens in sympathetic ophthalmia. Am J Ophthalmol. 1983;95(2):216–221. doi:10.1016/0002-9394(83)90016-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Azen SP, Marak GE, Minckler DS, Reynard M, Shulman I. Histocompatibility antigens in sympathetic ophthalmia. Am J Ophthalmol. 1984;98(1):117–119. doi:10.1016/0002-9394(84)90203-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kilmartin DJ, Wilson D, Liversidge J, et al. Immunogenetics and clinical phenotype of sympathetic ophthalmia in British and Irish patients. Br J Ophthalmol. 2001;85(3):281–286. doi:10.1136/bjo.85.3.281
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shindo Y, Ohno S, Usui M, et al. Immunogenetic study of sympathetic ophthalmia. Tissue Antigens. 1997;49(2):111–115. doi:10.1111/j.1399-0039.1997.tb02723.x
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tiercy J-M, Rathinam SR, Gex-Fabry M, Baglivo E. A shared HLA-DRB1 epitope in the DR beta first domain is associated with Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome in Indian patients. Mol Vis. 2010;16:353–358.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Academy of Ophthalmology. 2021–2022 basic and clinical science course, section 09: uveitis and ocular inflammation. American Academy of Ophthalmology; 2021. Available from: https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&scope=site&db=nlebk&db=nlabk&AN=2939258. Accessed September 23, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Sympathetic Ophthalmia. Immunopaedia Advancing global immunology education; December 1, 2014. Available from: https://www.immunopaedia.org.za/immunology/archive/tolerance-and-inflammation/sympathetic-ophthalmia/. Accessed September 24, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Rao NA, Xu S, Font RL. Sympathetic ophthalmia. An immunohistochemical study of epithelioid and giant cells. Ophthalmology. 1985;92(12):1660–1662. doi:10.1016/s0161-6420(85)34087-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winter FC. Sympathetic uveitis; a clinical and pathologic study of the visual result. Am J Ophthalmol. 1955;39(3):340–347. doi:10.1016/0002-9394(55)91277-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao NA. Mechanisms of inflammatory response in sympathetic ophthalmia and VKH syndrome. Eye. 1997;11(Pt 2):213–216. doi:10.1038/eye.1997.54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao NA. Pathology of Vogt–Koyanagi–Harada disease. Int Ophthalmol. 2007;27(2–3):81–85. doi:10.1007/s10792-006-9029-2
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Damico FM, Kiss S, Young LH. Sympathetic ophthalmia. Semin Ophthalmol. 2005;20(3):191–197. doi:10.1080/08820530500232100
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Reynard M, Riffenburgh RS, Minckler DS. Morphological variation of Dalén-Fuchs nodules in sympathetic ophthalmia. Br J Ophthalmol. 1985;69(3):197–201. doi:10.1136/bjo.69.3.197
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan CC, Nussenblatt RB, Fujikawa LS, et al. Sympathetic ophthalmia. Immunopathological findings. Ophthalmology. 1986;93(5):690–695. doi:10.1016/s0161-6420(86)33694-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Font RL, Fine BS, Messmer E, Rowsey JF. Light and electron microscopic study of Dalén-Fuchs nodules in sympathetic ophthalmia. Ophthalmology. 1983;90(1):66–75. doi:10.1016/s0161-6420(83)34595-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Croxatto JO, Rao NA, McLean IW, Marak GE. Atypical histopathologic features in sympathetic ophthalmia. A study of a hundred cases. Int Ophthalmol. 1982;4(3):129–135. doi:10.1007/BF00161902
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jakobiec FA, Marboe CC, Knowles DM, et al. Human sympathetic ophthalmia. An analysis of the inflammatory infiltrate by hybridoma-monoclonal antibodies, immunochemistry, and correlative electron microscopy. Ophthalmology. 1983;90(1):76–95. doi:10.1016/s0161-6420(83)34602-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shah DN, Piacentini MA, Burnier MN, McLean IW, Nussenblatt RB, Chan CC. Inflammatory cellular kinetics in sympathetic ophthalmia a study of 29 traumatized (exciting) eyes. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 1993;1(3):255–262. doi:10.3109/09273949309085026
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Abu El-Asrar AM, Struyf S, Van den Broeck C, et al. Expression of chemokines and gelatinase B in sympathetic ophthalmia. Eye. 2007;21(5):649–657. doi:10.1038/sj.eye.6702342
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hooks JJ, Chan CC, Detrick B. Identification of the lymphokines, interferon-gamma and interleukin-2, in inflammatory eye diseases. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1988;29(9):1444–1451.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furusato E, Shen D, Cao X, et al. Inflammatory cytokine and chemokine expression in sympathetic ophthalmia: a pilot study. Histol Histopathol. 2011;26(9):1145–1151. doi:10.14670/HH-26.1145
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyd SR, Young S, Lightman S. Immunopathology of the noninfectious posterior and intermediate uveitides. Surv Ophthalmol. 2001;46(3):209–233. doi:10.1016/s0039-6257(01)00275-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parikh JG, Saraswathy S, Rao NA. Photoreceptor oxidative damage in sympathetic ophthalmia. Am J Ophthalmol. 2008;146(6):866–875.e2. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2008.03.026
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balamurugan S, Das D, Hasanreisoglu M, et al. Interleukins and cytokine biomarkers in uveitis. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2020;68(9):1750–1763. doi:10.4103/ijo.IJO_564_20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kase S, Meghpara BB, Ishida S, Rao NA. Expression of α-crystallin in the retina of human sympathetic ophthalmia. Mol Med Rep. 2012;5(2):395–399. doi:10.3892/mmr.2011.653
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan CC, Matteson DM, Li Q, Whitcup SM, Nussenblatt RB. Apoptosis in patients with posterior uveitis. Arch Ophthalmol. 1997;115(12):1559–1567. doi:10.1001/archopht.1997.01100160729010
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zhong Z, Su G, Kijlstra A, Yang P. Activation of the interleukin-23/interleukin-17 signalling pathway in autoinflammatory and autoimmune uveitis. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2021;80:100866. doi:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2020.100866
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaneko Y, Wu GS, Saraswathy S, Vasconcelos-Santos DV, Rao NA. Immunopathologic processes in sympathetic ophthalmia as signified by microRNA profiling. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2012;53(7):4197–4204. doi:10.1167/iovs.12-9465
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colyer MH, Chun DW, Bower KS, Dick JSB, Weichel ED. Perforating globe injuries during operation Iraqi freedom. Ophthalmology. 2008;115(11):2087–2093. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2008.05.013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verhoeff FH. An effective treatment for sympathetic uveitis. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1926;24:173–191.
   Google Scholar
• Easom HA. Sympathetic ophthalmia associated with malignant melanoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 1963;70(6):786–790. doi:10.1001/archopht.1963.00960050788011
   Google Scholar
• Vote BJ, Hall A, Cairns J, Buttery R. Changing trends in sympathetic ophthalmia. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol. 2004;32(5):542–545. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9071.2004.00876.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ganesh SK, Narayana KM, Biswas J. Peripapillary choroidal atrophy in sympathetic ophthalmia and management with triple-agent immunosuppression. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2003;11(1):61–65. doi:10.1076/ocii.11.1.61.15581
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang P, Liu S, Zhong Z, et al. Comparison of clinical features and visual outcome between sympathetic ophthalmia and Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease in Chinese patients. Ophthalmology. 2019;126(9):1297–1305. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2019.03.049
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Comer M, Taylor C, Chen S, Martin K, Jordan K, Meyer P. Sympathetic ophthalmia associated with high frequent deafness. Br J Ophthalmol. 2001;85(4):496. doi:10.1136/bjo.85.4.496
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saatçi AO, Ayhan Z, Ipek ŞC, Söylev Bajin M. Intravitreal aflibercept as an adjunct to systemic therapy in a case of choroidal neovascular membrane associated with sympathetic ophthalmia. Turk J Ophthalmol. 2018;48(4):209–211. doi:10.4274/tjo.09076
   Google Scholar
• Burkholder BM, Dunn JP. Multiple serous retinal detachments seen on wide-field imaging in a patient with sympathetic ophthalmia. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2014;132(10):1220. doi:10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2014.52
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jabs DA, Dick A, Kramer M, et al. Classification criteria for sympathetic ophthalmia. Am J Ophthalmol. 2021. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2021.03.048
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tripathy K, Chawla R, Temkar S, et al. Phthisis bulbi-a clinicopathological perspective. Semin Ophthalmol. 2018;33(6):788–803. doi:10.1080/08820538.2018.1477966
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahajan S, Invernizzi A, Agrawal R, Biswas J, Rao NA, Gupta V. Multimodal imaging in sympathetic ophthalmia. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2017;25(2):152–159. doi:10.1080/09273948.2016.1255339
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gupta V, Gupta A, Dogra MR. Posterior sympathetic ophthalmia: a single centre long-term study of 40 patients from North India. Eye. 2008;22(12):1459–1464. doi:10.1038/sj.eye.6702927
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis ML, Gass JDM, Spencer WH. Sympathetic uveitis after trauma and vitrectomy. Arch Ophthalmol. 1978;96(2):263–267. doi:10.1001/archopht.1978.03910050131005
   Google Scholar
• Inomata H, Rao NA. Depigmented atrophic lesions in sunset glow fundi of Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. Am J Ophthalmol. 2001;131(5):607–614. doi:10.1016/S0002-9394(00)00851-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernasconi O, Auer C, Zografos L, Herbort CP. Indocyanine green angiographic findings in sympathetic ophthalmia. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1998;236(8):635–638. doi:10.1007/s004170050134
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saatci AO, Paşa E, Söylev MF, Koçak N, Durak I, Kaynak S. Sympathetic ophthalmia and indocyanine green angiography. Arch Ophthalmol. 2004;122(10):1568–1569. doi:10.1001/archopht.122.10.1568
   Google Scholar
• Casella AMB, Farah ME, Martins MC, Hasegawa A, Oguido APMT. Sympathetic ophthalmia - histopathological correlation with fluorescein and indocyanine green angiography: case report. Arq Bras Oftalmol. 2008;71(6):886–889. doi:10.1590/s0004-27492008000600025
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delori FC, Dorey CK, Staurenghi G, Arend O, Goger DG, Weiter JJ. In vivo fluorescence of the ocular fundus exhibits retinal pigment epithelium lipofuscin characteristics. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1995;36(3):718–729.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmitz-Valckenberg S, Holz FG, Bird AC, Spaide RF. Fundus autofluorescence imaging. Retina. 2008;28(3):385–409. doi:10.1097/IAE.0b013e318164a907
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samy A, Lightman S, Ismetova F, Talat L, Tomkins-Netzer O. Role of autofluorescence in inflammatory/infective diseases of the retina and choroid. J Ophthalmol. 2014;2014:1–9. doi:10.1155/2014/418193
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fleischman D, Say EAT, Wright JD, Landers MB. Multimodality diagnostic imaging in a case of sympathetic ophthalmia. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2012;20(4):300–302. doi:10.3109/09273948.2012.682637
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castiblanco C, Adelman RA. Imaging for sympathetic ophthalmia. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 2012;52(4):173–181. doi:10.1097/IIO.0b013e318265d5c7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Forster DJ. Echographic features of the Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Arch Ophthalmol. 1990;108(10):1421. doi:10.1001/archopht.1990.01070120069031
   Google Scholar
• Keane PA, Sadda SR. Retinal imaging in the twenty-first century. Ophthalmology. 2014;121(12):2489–2500. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2014.07.054
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Correnti AJ, Read RW, Kimble JA, Morris R. Imaging of Dalen–Fuchs Nodules in a likely case of sympathetic ophthalmia by fluorescein angiography and OCT. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging. 2010. doi:10.3928/15428877-20100215-56
   Google Scholar
• Mehta N, Chong J, Tsui E, et al. Presumed foveal bacillary layer detachment in a patient with toxoplasmosis chorioretinitis and pachychoroid disease. Retin Cases Brief Rep. 2021;15(4):391–398. doi:10.1097/ICB.0000000000000817
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Muakkassa NW, Witkin AJ. Spectral-domain optical coherence tomography of sympathetic ophthalmia with Dalen-Fuchs nodules. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging Retina. 2014;45(6):610–612. doi:10.3928/23258160-20141008-01
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogaczewska M, Iwanik K, Stopa M. Early presentation of sympathetic ophthalmia in optical coherence tomography studies: a case report. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2020;68(9):2019–2022. doi:10.4103/ijo.IJO_2184_19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agrawal R, Jain M, Khan R, et al. Choroidal structural changes in sympathetic ophthalmia on swept-source optical coherence tomography. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2019:1–6. doi:10.1080/09273948.2019.1685110
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aggarwal K, Agarwal A, Mahajan S, et al. The role of optical coherence tomography angiography in the diagnosis and management of acute Vogt–Koyanagi–Harada disease. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2018;26(1):142–153. doi:10.1080/09273948.2016.1195001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brar M, Sharma M, Grewal SPS, Grewal DS. Treatment response in sympathetic ophthalmia as assessed by widefield OCT angiography. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging Retina. 2018;49(9):726–730. doi:10.3928/23258160-20180831-13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levison AL, Baynes KM, Lowder CY, Kaiser PK, Srivastava SK. Choroidal neovascularisation on optical coherence tomography angiography in punctate inner choroidopathy and multifocal choroiditis. Br J Ophthalmol. 2017;101(5):616–622. doi:10.1136/bjophthalmol-2016-308806
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moorthy RS, Inomata H, Rao NA. Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Surv Ophthalmol. 1995;39(4):265–292. doi:10.1016/s0039-6257(05)80105-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohno S, Char DH, Kimura SJ, O’Connor GR. Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 1977;83(5):735–740. doi:10.1016/0002-9394(77)90142-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh R, Gupta V, Gupta A. Pattern of uveitis in a referral eye clinic in north India. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2004;52(2):121–125.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wakabayashi T, Morimura Y, Miyamoto Y, Okada AA. Changing patterns of intraocular inflammatory disease in Japan. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2003;11(4):277–286. doi:10.1076/ocii.11.4.277.18260
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Islam SMM, Tabbara KF. Causes of uveitis at the eye center in Saudi Arabia: a retrospective review. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2002;9(4):239–249. doi:10.1076/opep.9.4.239.1507
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kedhar SR, Thorne JE, Wittenberg S, Dunn JP, Jabs DA. Multifocal choroiditis with panuveitis and punctate inner choroidopathy: comparison of clinical characteristics at presentation. Retina. 2007;27(9):1174–1179. doi:10.1097/IAE.0b013e318068de72
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dreyer RF, Gass DJ. Multifocal choroiditis and panuveitis. A syndrome that mimics ocular histoplasmosis. Arch Ophthalmol. 1984;102(12):1776–1784. doi:10.1001/archopht.1984.01040031440019
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Morgan CM, Schatz H. Recurrent multifocal choroiditis. Ophthalmology. 1986;93(9):1138–1147. doi:10.1016/s0161-6420(86)33611-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haik GM, Waugh RL, Lyda W. Sympathetic ophthalmia; similarity to bilateral endophthalmitis phacoanaphylactica; new therapeutic methods. AMA Arch Ophthalmol. 1952;47(4):437–453. doi:10.1001/archopht.1952.01700030447005
   Google Scholar
• Marak GE. Phacoanaphylactic endophthalmitis. Surv Ophthalmol. 1992;36(5):325–339. doi:10.1016/0039-6257(92)90109-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan C-C. 32 cases of sympathetic ophthalmia. Arch Ophthalmol. 1995;113(5):597. doi:10.1001/archopht.1995.01100050065032
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chawla R, Kapoor M, Mehta A, Tripathy K, Vohra R, Venkatesh P. Sympathetic ophthalmia: experience from a tertiary care center in Northern India. J Ophthalmic Vis Res. 2018;13(4):439–446. doi:10.4103/jovr.jovr_86_17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sethi HS, Menon V, Sharma P, Khokhar S, Tandon R. Visual outcome after intravenous dexamethasone therapy for idiopathic optic neuritis in an Indian population: a clinical case series. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2006;54(3):177–183. doi:10.4103/0301-4738.27069
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Foster CS, Kothari S, Anesi SD, et al. The ocular immunology and Uveitis Foundation preferred practice patterns of uveitis management. Surv Ophthalmol. 2016;61(1):1–17. doi:10.1016/j.survophthal.2015.07.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jonas JB, Spandau UHM. Repeated intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for chronic sympathetic ophthalmia. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2006;84(3):436. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0420.2005.00634.x
   Google Scholar
• Chan RVP, Seiff BD, Lincoff HA, Coleman DJ. Rapid recovery of sympathetic ophthalmia with treatment augmented by intravitreal steroids. Retina. 2006;26(2):243–247. doi:10.1097/00006982-200602000-00029
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ozdemir H, Karacorlu M, Karacorlu S. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide in sympathetic ophthalmia. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2005;243(7):734–736. doi:10.1007/s00417-004-1064-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jonas JB. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for treatment of sympathetic ophthalmia. Am J Ophthalmol. 2004;137(2):367–368. doi:10.1016/S0002-9394(03)00899-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahajan VB, Gehrs KM, Goldstein DA, Fischer DH, Lopez JS, Folk JC. Management of sympathetic ophthalmia with the fluocinolone acetonide implant. Ophthalmology. 2009;116(3):552–557.e1. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2008.10.024
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meira J, Madeira C, Falcão-Reis F, Figueira L. Sustained control from recurring non-infectious uveitic macular edema with 0.19 mg fluocinolone acetonide intravitreal implant – a case report. Ophthalmol Ther. 2019;8(4):635–641. doi:10.1007/s40123-019-00209-w
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wocker L, Januschowski K. [Steroid implant in treatment of sympathetic ophthalmia: intravitreal implant of dexamethasone in cystoid macular edema in the context of sympathetic ophthalmia]. Ophthalmologe. 2019;116(4):380–383. German. doi:10.1007/s00347-018-0748-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mansour AM. Dexamethasone implant as sole therapy in sympathetic ophthalmia. Case Rep Ophthalmol. 2018;9(2):257–263. doi:10.1159/000488850
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tan XL, Seen S, Dutta Majumder P, et al. Analysis of 130 cases of sympathetic ophthalmia - a retrospective multicenter case series. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2019;27(8):1259–1266. doi:10.1080/09273948.2018.1517894
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sen HN. American Academy of ophthalmology. Uveitis and Ocular Inflammation; 2021. Available from: https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&scope=site&db=nlebk&db=nlabk&AN=2939258. Accessed July 23, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Tripathy K, Dt G, Vannadil H, Palestine A, Tsui E. Immunomodulatory Therapy (IMT) for ocular inflammation; July 23, 2021. Available from: https://eyewiki.aao.org/Immunomodulatory_Therapy_(IMT)_for_Ocular_Inflammation. Accessed October 7, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Hrarat L, Fardeau C, Lehoang P. Immunosuppressive treatment in sympathetic ophthalmia long-term visual outcome. Acta Ophthalmol. 2014;92. doi:10.1111/j.1755-3768.2014.F091.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wand K, Straub M, Lohmann CP, Mayer CS. Sympathische Ophthalmie: therapie mit steroidsparendem Immunsuppressivum Azathioprin. Ophthalmologe. 2016;113(10):867–869. doi:10.1007/s00347-016-0227-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wieringa WG, Armbrust W, Legger GE, Los LI. Efficacy of high-dose methotrexate in pediatric non-infectious uveitis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2019;27(8):1305–1313. doi:10.1080/09273948.2018.1529800
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lau CH, Comer M, Lightman S. Long-term efficacy of mycophenolate mofetil in the control of severe intraocular inflammation. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2003;31(6):487–491. doi:10.1046/j.1442-9071.2003.00704.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thorne JE, Jabs DA, Qazi FA, Nguyen QD, Kempen JH, Dunn JP. Mycophenolate mofetil therapy for inflammatory eye disease. Ophthalmology. 2005;112(8):1472–1477. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2005.02.020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jabs DA, Rosenbaum JT, Foster CS, et al. Guidelines for the use of immunosuppressive drugs in patients with ocular inflammatory disorders: recommendations of an expert panel. Am J Ophthalmol. 2000;130(4):492–513. doi:10.1016/s0002-9394(00)00659-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaçmaz RO, Kempen JH, Newcomb C, et al. Cyclosporine for ocular inflammatory diseases. Ophthalmology. 2010;117(3):576–584. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2009.08.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nussenblatt RB, Palestine AG, Chan CC, Stevens G, Mellow SD, Green SB. Randomized, double-masked study of cyclosporine compared to prednisolone in the treatment of endogenous uveitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 1991;112(2):138–146. doi:10.1016/s0002-9394(14)76692-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walton RC, Nussenblatt RB, Whitcup SM. Cyclosporine therapy for severe sight-threatening uveitis in children and adolescents. Ophthalmology. 1998;105(11):2028–2034. doi:10.1016/S0161-6420(98)91120-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leznoff A, Shea M, Binkley KE, Rootman DS, Rabinovitch T. Cyclosporine in the treatment of nonmicrobial inflammatory ophthalmic disease. Can J Ophthalmol. 1992;27(6):302–306.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nussenblatt RB, Palestine AG, Chan CC. Cyclosporin A therapy in the treatment of intraocular inflammatory disease resistant to systemic corticosteroids and cytotoxic agents. Am J Ophthalmol. 1983;96(3):275–282. doi:10.1016/s0002-9394(14)77814-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hakin KN, Pearson RV, Lightman SL. Sympathetic ophthalmia: visual results with modern immunosuppressive therapy. Eye. 1992;6(Pt 5):453–455. doi:10.1038/eye.1992.95
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pujari SS, Kempen JH, Newcomb CW, et al. Cyclophosphamide for ocular inflammatory diseases. Ophthalmology. 2010;117(2):356–365. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2009.06.060
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patel SS, Dodds EM, Echandi LV, et al. Long-term, drug-free remission of sympathetic ophthalmia with high-dose, short-term chlorambucil therapy. Ophthalmology. 2014;121(2):596–602. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2013.09.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang CS, Liu JH. Chlorambucil therapy in sympathetic ophthalmia. Am J Ophthalmol. 1995;119(4):482–488. doi:10.1016/s0002-9394(14)71235-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Imrie FR, Dick AD. Biologics in the treatment of uveitis. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2007;18(6):481–486. doi:10.1097/ICU.0b013e3282f03d42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lim L, Suhler EB, Smith JR. Biologic therapies for inflammatory eye disease. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2006;34(4):365–374. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9071.2006.01225.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palexas GN, Sussman G, Welsh NH. Ocular and systemic determination of IL-1 beta and tumour necrosis factor in a patient with ocular inflammation. Scand J Immunol Suppl. 1992;11:173–175. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3083.1992.tb01645.x
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Santos Lacomba M, Marcos Martín C, Gallardo Galera JM, et al. Aqueous humor and serum tumor necrosis factor-alpha in clinical uveitis. Ophthalmic Res. 2001;33(5):251–255. doi:10.1159/000055677
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cochrane S, Dick A. Tumour necrosis factor-alpha-targeted therapies in uveitis. In: Pleyer U, Foster C, editors. Uveitis and Immunological Disorders. Berlin: Springer; 2007:177–192.
   Google Scholar
• Fong D, Law S, Schmidt-Erfurth U. Drugs in Ophthalmology. Germany: Springer; 2006.
   Google Scholar
• LaMattina KC, Goldstein DA. Adalimumab for the treatment of uveitis. Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2017;13(3):181–188. doi:10.1080/1744666X.2017.1288097
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gupta SR, Phan IT, Suhler EB. Successful treatment of refractory sympathetic ophthalmia in a child with infliximab. Arch Ophthalmol. 2011;129(2):250–252. doi:10.1001/archophthalmol.2010.358
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ramírez ED, Guijarro González JJ, Vicuña RG. Postsurgical sympathetic ophthalmia refractory to treatment: the response to infliximab. Retin Cases Brief Rep. 2012;6(2):169–171. doi:10.1097/ICB.0b013e3182235354
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kim J-B, Jeroudi A, Angeles-Han ST, Grossniklaus HE, Yeh S. Adalimumab for pediatric sympathetic ophthalmia. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2014;132(8):1022–1024. doi:10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2014.426
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vallet H, Seve P, Biard L, et al. Infliximab versus adalimumab in the treatment of refractory inflammatory uveitis: a Multicenter Study from the French Uveitis Network. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2016;68(6):1522–1530. doi:10.1002/art.39667
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hiyama T, Harada Y, Kiuchi Y. Efficacy and Safety of adalimumab therapy for the treatment of non-infectious uveitis: efficacy comparison among uveitis aetiologies. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2021;1–8. doi:10.1080/09273948.2020.1857791
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simonini G, Taddio A, Cattalini M, et al. Prevention of flare recurrences in childhood-refractory chronic uveitis: an open-label comparative study of adalimumab versus infliximab. Arthritis Care Res. 2011;63(4):612–618. doi:10.1002/acr.20404
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mesquida M, Molins B, Llorenç V, et al. Twenty-four month follow-up of tocilizumab therapy for refractory uveitis-related macular edema. Retina. 2018;38(7):1361–1370. doi:10.1097/IAE.0000000000001690
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham BC, Pulido JS, Winters JL. Seeing is believing: a review of apheresis therapy in the treatment of ophthalmologic disease. J Clin Apher. 2018;33(3):380–392. doi:10.1002/jca.21607
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Savar A, Andreoli MT, Kloek CE, Andreoli CM. Enucleation for open globe injury. Am J Ophthalmol. 2009;147(4):595–600.e1. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2008.10.017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dogra M, Samanta R, Singh P, et al. Surgical intervention in inciting eyes of patients with sympathetic ophthalmia: a case series and review of literature. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2019;27(7):1154–1159. doi:10.1080/09273948.2018.1497663
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galor A, Davis JL, Flynn HW, et al. Sympathetic ophthalmia: incidence of ocular complications and vision loss in the sympathizing eye. Am J Ophthalmol. 2009;148(5):704–710.e2. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2009.05.033
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Payal AR, Foster CS. Long-term drug-free remission and visual outcomes in sympathetic ophthalmia. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2017;25(2):190–195. doi:10.3109/09273948.2015.1092557
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dutta Majumder P, Mistry S, Sridharan S, et al. Pediatric sympathetic ophthalmia: 20 years of data from a tertiary eye center in India. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 2020;57(3):154–158. doi:10.3928/01913913-20200219-01
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar