139
Views
32
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Article

Myopia, Intelligence, and the Expanding Human Neocortex: Behavioral Influences and Evolutionary Implications

Pages 153-276 | Received 17 Sep 1998, Published online: 07 Jul 2009

References

  • Abbott M. L., Schmd K. L., Strang N. C. Differences in the accommodation stimulus response curves of adult myopes and emmetropes. Ophthalmic Physiology & Ophthalmology 1998; 18: 13–20
  • Angle J., Wissmann D. A. The epidemiology of myopia. American Journal of Epidemiology 1980; 111: 220–228
  • Ashton G. C. Segregation analysis of ocular refraction and myopia. Human Heredity 1985; 35: 232–239
  • Baldwin W. R. A review of statistical studies of relations between myopia and ethnic, behavioral, and physiological characteristics. American Journal of Optometry & Physiological Optics 1981; 58: 516–527
  • Benbow C. P. Possible biological correlates of precocious mathematical reasoning ability. Trends in Neurosciences 1987; 10: 17–20
  • Benbow C. P., Benbow R. M. Biological correlates of high mathematical reasoning ability. Progress in Brain Research 1984; 61: 469–490
  • Benbow C. P., Benbow R. M. Physiological correlates of extreme intellectual precocity. Mensa Research Journal 1986; 21: 54–87
  • Chen C. J., Cohen B. H., Diamond E. L. Genetic and environmental effects on the development of myopia in Chinese twin children. Ophthalmic Paediatrics and Genetics 1985; 6: 113–119
  • Chew S. J., Chia S. C., Lee L. Pattern of myopia in young Singapore men. Singapore Medical Journal 1988; 29: 201–211
  • Chow T. C., Dhillon B., Chew P. T. K., Chew S. J. Refractive errors in Singapore medical students. Singapore Medical Journal 1990; 31: 472–473
  • Chung K. M., Mohidin N., Yeow P. T., Tan L. L. Prevalence of visual disorders in Chinese school children. Optometry and Vision Science 1996; 73: 695–700
  • Cohn H. Die Augen der in Breslau medicin studirenden. Archives Augenheilk 1902; 46: 29–48, (abstracted by Goldschmidt, 1968. p. 117; see reference below)
  • Cole T. J. Growth charts for both cross-sectional and longitudinal data. Statistics in Medicine 1994; 13: 2477–2492
  • Curtin B. J. Physiologic vs pathologic myopia: genetics vs environment. Ophthalmology 1979; 86: 681–691
  • Dekaban A. S., Sadowsky B. S. Changes in brain weights during the span of human life: relation of brain weights to body heights and body weights. Annals of Neurology 1978; 4: 345–356
  • Diamond M. C. Enriching Heredity: The Impact of the Environment on the Anatomy of the Brain. The Free Press, New York 1988
  • Diamond M. C., Chui D., Johnson R. E., Chalgren M., Greer E. R., Gibbons J. Increased cortical thickness in male progeny from enriched parents before and during gestation. Proceedings: 16th Annual Meeting of The Society for Neuroscience. 1984, No. 287.8
  • Diamond M. C., Scheibel A. B., Murphy G. M., Harvey T. On the brain of a scientist: Albert Einstein. Experimental Neurology 1985; 88: 198–206
  • Dunphy E. B., Stoll M. R., King S. H. Myopia among American male graduate students. American Journal of Ophthalmology 1968; 65: 518–521
  • Fledelius H. C. Is myopia getting more frequent? A cross-sectional study of 1.416 Danes aged 16 years. Acta Ophthalmologica 1983; 61: 545–559
  • Friedman N. E., Mutti D. O., Zadnik K. Corneal changes in school children. Optometry and Vision Science 1996; 73: 552–557
  • Garner L. F., Meng C. K., Grosvenor T. P., Mohidin N. Ocular dimensions and refractive power in Malay & Melanesian children. Ophthalmic Physiology & Ophthalmology 1990; 10: 234–238
  • Goss D. A., Jackson T. W. Clinical findings before the onset of myopia in youth: I. ocular optical components. Optometry and Vision Science 1995; 72: 870–878
  • Goldschmidt E. On the etiology of myopia: An epidemiological study. Acta Ophthalmologica 1968; 98: 1–172, (supplement)
  • Greenough W. T. Enduring brain effects of differential experience and training. Neural Mechanisms of Learning and Memory, M. R. La Rosenzweig, E. I. Bennett. The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. 1976
  • Gwiazda J., Bauer J., Thorn F., Held R. A dynamic relationship between myopia and blur-driven accommodation in school-aged children. Vision Research 1994; 35: 1299–1301
  • Gwiazda J., Bauer J., Thorn F., Held R. Shifts to tonic accommodation after near work are related to refractive errors in children. Ophthalmic Physiology & Ophthalmology 1995; 15: 93–97
  • Haug H. Are neurons of the cerebral cortex really lost during aging. Senile Dementia of the Alzheimer Type, J. Traber, W. H. Gispen. Springer-Verlag, Berlin 1985; 150–163
  • Haug H. Brian size. surfaces, and neuronal sizes of the cortex cerebri. American Journal of Anatomy 1987; 180: 126–142
  • Heinonen O. Weitere Studien über die Schulmyopie. Acta Ophthalmologica 1934; 12: 110–121, (abstracted in Fledelius. 1983)
  • Hirsch M. J. The changes in refraction between the ages of 5 and 14 Theoretical and practical considerations. American Journal of Optometry 1952; 29: 445–459
  • Ho K., Roessmann U., Straumfjord J. V., Monroe G. Analysis of brain weight. Archives of Pathology and Laboratory of Medicine 1980; 104: 635–645
  • Jacobs B., Schall M., Scheibel A. B. A quantitative dendritic analysis of Wernicke's area in humans: gender, hemispheric and environmental factors. Journal of Comparative Neurology 1993; 327: 97–111
  • Kamiya S., Nomura K., Asai I. Simple regression analysis of refractive power refractive elements. Folia Ophthalmologica Japonica 1986; 37: 892–896
  • Kantor D. Racial aspects of myopia in compositors. British Journal of Ophthalmology 1932; 16: 49–50
  • Kao S. C., Lu H. Y., Liu J. H. Atropine effect on school myopia. Acta Ophthalmologica, Supplement 1988; 185: 132–133
  • Karlsson J. L. Concordance rates for myopia in twins. Clinical Genetics 1974; 6: 142–146
  • Krause U., Krause K., Rantakillio P. Sex differences in refractive errors. Acta Ophthalmologica 1982; 60: 917–926
  • Kuenzle C. C., Knusel A. Mass training of rats in a super-enriched environment. Physiology and Behavior 1974; 13: 205–210
  • Laatikainen L., Erkkils H. Refractive errors and ocular findings in school children. Acta Ophthalmologica 1980; 58: 129–136
  • Lam C. S. Y., Goh W. S. H. The incidence of refractive errors among school children in Hong Kong and its relationship with the optical components. Clinical and Experimental Optometry 1991; 74: 97–103
  • Lynn R. Sex differences in intelligence and brain size: a paradox resolved. Personality & Individual Differences 1944; 17: 257–271
  • Lynn R., Hampson S. L. The rise of national intelligence: evidence from Britain, Japan, and the U.S.A. Personality & Individual Differences 1986; 7: 23–32
  • Malkasian D., Diamond M. C. The effect of environmental manipulation on the morphology of the neonatal brain. International Journal of Neuroscience 1971; 2: 161–170
  • Måntyjårvi M. I. Incidence of myopia in a population of Finnish school children. Acta Ophthalmologica 1983; 61: 417–423
  • Måntyjårvi M. I. Predicting of myopia progression in school children. Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology & Strabismus 1985; 22: 71–75
  • Martin W. J. The physique of young adult males. Medical Research Council 1949, Memo #20
  • Parnell R. W. Sight of undergraduates. British Journal of Ophthalmology 1951; 35: 467–472
  • Pearson K., Moul M. The problem of alien immigration into Great Britain, as illustrated by an examination of Russian and Polish Jewish children. Annals of Eugenics 1927; 2: 111–244
  • Peckham C. S., Gardiner P. A., Goldstein H. Acquired myopia in 11-year-old children. British Medical Journal 1977; 1: 542–544
  • Rosner M., Belkin M. Intelligence, education, and myopia in males. Archives of Ophthalmology 1987; 105: 1508–1511
  • Schacffel F., Howland H. C. Guest editorial. Vision Research 1995; 35: 1135–1139
  • Scheibel A. B. Dendritic correlates of human cortical function. Archives Italiennes de Biologie 1988; 126: 347–357
  • Skeller E. Anthropological and opthalmological studies on the Angmarssalik Eskimos. Meddelelser om Gronland 1954; 107(4)1–211
  • Skuse D. H., James R. S., Bishop D. V. M., Coppin B., Dalton P., Aamodo-Leeper G., Bacarese-Hamilton M., Creswell C., McGurk R., Jacobs P. A. Evidence from Turners syndrome of an imprinted X-linked locus affecting cognitive function. Nature 1997; 387: 705–708
  • Sorsby A. Genetics in Ophthalmology. Butterworth, London 1951
  • Sorsby A., Sheridan M., Leary G. A. Vision, visual acuity, and ocular refraction of young men. British Medical Journal 1960; 1: 1394–1398
  • Sorsby A., Sheridan M., Leary G. A. Refraction and its components in twins. MRC Special Reports, Series 1962; 303: 1–43
  • Sorsby A., Leary G. A., Fraser G. R. Family studies on ocular refraction and its components. Journal of Medical Genetics 1966; 3: 269–273
  • Sourasky A. Race, sex and environment in the development of myopia. British Journal of Ophthalmology 1928; 12: 197–212
  • Stone R. A., Lin T., Laties A. M. Muscarinic antagonist effects on experimental chick myopia. Experimental Eye Research 1991; 52: 755–758
  • Storfer M. D. Intelligence and Giftedness: The Contributions of Heredity & Early Environment. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco & Oxford 1990
  • Storfer M. D. We the gifted: Prevalence of childhood myopia and allergies in a high-IQ population. Mensa Bulletin December, 1994; 382: 11
  • Wallman J. Nature and nurture of myopia. Nature 1994; 371: 201–202
  • Walsh R. Towards an Ecology of Brain. Spectrum, New York 1981
  • Witelson S. F., Glezer I. I., Kigar D. L. Women have greater density of neurons in posterior temporal cortex. Journal of Neuroscience 1995; 15: 3418–3428
  • Yap M., Wu M., Liu Z. M., Lee F. L., Wang S. H. Role of heredity in the genesis of myopia. Ophthalmic Physiology & Ophthalmology 1993; 13: 316–319
  • Young F. A. The effect of atropine on the development of myopia in monkeys. American Journal of Optometry and Archives of the American Academy of Optometry 1965; 42: 439–443
  • Young F. A., Leary G. A., Baldwin W. R., West D. C., Box R. A., Harris E., Johnson C. The transmission of refractive errors within Eskimo families. American Journal of Optometry and Archives of the American Academy of Optometry 1969; 46: 676–685
  • Zadnik K., Mutti D. O. How applicable are animal myopia models to human juvenile onset myopia?. Vision Research 1995; 35: 1283–1288
  • Alsbirk P. H. Refraction in adult west-Greenland Eskimos. Acta Ophthalmologica 1979; 57: 84–95
  • Andreasen N. C., Flaum M., Swayze V., O'Leary D. S., Alliger R., Cohen G., Fhrhardt J. M., Yuh W. T. C. Intelligence and brain structure in normal individuals. American Journal of Psychiatry 1993; 150: 130–134
  • Azari N. P., Rapoport S. I., Salerno J. A., Grady C. I., Gonzalez-Aviles A., Schapiro M. B., Horwitz B. Interregional correlations of resting cerebral glucose metabolism in old and young women. Brain Research 1992; 589: 279–290
  • Backman M. E. Patterns of mental abilities: ethnic, socioeconomic and sex differences. American Educational Research Journal 1972; 9: 1–12
  • Barnett S. A., Dickson R. G. Wild mice in the cold: Some findings on adaptation. Biological Reviews 1989; 64: 317–340
  • Barnett S. A., Dickson R. G. Hybrids show parental influence in the adaptation of wild house mice to cold. Genetical Research, Cambridge Society 1987; 50: 199–204
  • Barnett S. A., Dickson R. G. Interaction of genotype and parental environment in the adaptation of wild house mice Mus Musculus to cold. Journal of Zoology 1986; A208: 531–539
  • Barnett S. A., Dickson R. G. A paternal influence on survival of wild mice in the nest. Nature 1985; 317: 617–618
  • Beals K. L., Smith C. L., Dodd S. M. Brain size, cranial morphology, climate, and time machines. Current Anthropology 1984; 25: 301–330
  • Benbow C. P., Benbow R. M. Physiological correlates of extreme intellectual precocity. Mensa Research Journal 1986; 21: 54–87
  • Berry R. J. Population dynamics of the house mouse. Symposia of the Zoological Society of London 1981; 47: 395–425
  • Bigler E. D., Johnson S. C., Jackson C., Blatter D. D. Aging, brain size, and IQ. Intelligence 1995; 21: 109–119
  • Blatter D. D., Bigler E. D., Gale S. D., Johnson S. C., Anderson C. V., Burnett B. M., Parker N., Kurth S., Horn S. Quantitative volumetric analysis of MR: Normative database spanning five decades. American Journal of Neuroradiology 1995; 16: 241–251
  • Bouchard T. J., Jr., McGue M. Familial studies of intelligence: A review. Science 1981; 212: 1055–1059
  • Burks B. S. The relative influence of nature and nurture upon mental development. Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education 1928; 27: 219–316
  • Bush G. L., Case S. M., Wilson A. C., Patton J. L. Rapid speciation and chromosomal evolution in mammals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1977; 74: 3942–3946
  • Catalano S. M., Shatz C. J. Activity-dependent cortical target selection by thalamic axons. Science 1998; 281: 559–562
  • Caudill W. A. Social structure in Japan and America. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 1973; 157: 240–257
  • Caudill W. A., Schooler C. Child behavior and child rearing in Japan and in the United States. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 1973; 157: 323–339
  • Caudill W. A., Weinstein H. Maternal care and infant behavior in Japan and America. Psychiatry 1969; 32: 12–43
  • Chan J., Lynn R. The intelligence of six-year-olds in Hong Kong. Journal of Biosocial Science 1989; 21: 461–464
  • Chen C. J., Cohen B. H., Diamond E. L. Genetic and environmental effects on the development of myopia in Chinese twin children. Ophthalmic Paediatrics and Genetics 1985; 6: 113–119
  • Coffey C. E., Wilkinson W. E., Parashos I. A., Soady S. A., Sullivan R. J., Patterson L. J., Figiel G. S., Webb C. E., Spritzer C. E., Djang W. T. Quantitative cerebral anatomy of the aging human brain: a cross-sectional study using magnetic resonance imaging. Neurology 1992; 42: 527–536
  • Cole T. J. Growth charts for both cross-sectional and longitudinal data. Statistics in Medicine 1994; 13: 2477–2492
  • Condon W. S., Sander L. W. Synchrony demonstrated between movements of the neonate and adult speech. Child Development 1974; 45: 456–462
  • Crawford D. L., Powers D. A. Evolutionary adaptation to different thermal environments via transcriptional regulation. Molecular Biology and Evolution 1992; 9: 806–813
  • Curtin B. J. The Myopias. Harper & Row, Philadelphia 1985
  • Darwin C. Origin of Species by Natural Selection6th ed. Oxford University Press, Oxford England 1872, reprint. (1956)
  • de Carli C., Murphy D. G. M., Gillette J. A., Haxby J. V., Telchberg D., Schapiro M. B., Horwitz B. Lack of age-related differences in temporal lobe volume of very healthy adults. AJNR 1994; 15: 689–696
  • DeCasper A. J., Preston P. A. Human newborns' perception of male voices: preference, discrimination, and reinforcing value. Developmental Psychobiology 1986; 17: 481–491
  • DeCasper A. J., Fifer W. P. Of human bonding: newborns prefer their mothers' voices. Science 1980; 208: 1174–1176
  • DeCasper A. J., Spence M. J. Prenatal maternal speech influences newborns' perception of speech sounds. Infant Behavior and Development 1986; 9: 133–150
  • Dekaban A. S., Sadowsky B. S. Changes in brain weights during the span of human life: relation of brain weights to body heights and body weights. Annals of Neurology 1978; 4: 345–356
  • deLeeuw J., Meester A. C. Over het intelligence onderzoek bij de militiare keuringen vanaf 1925 tot heden ‘Intelligence as tested at selection for the military service from 1925 to the present.’. Mens en Maatschappij 1984; 59: 5–26
  • Dershowitz Z., Frankel Y. Jewish culture and the WISC and WAIS patterns. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1975; 43: 126–134
  • Devaney K. O., Johnson H. A. Neuron loss in the aging visual cortex. Journal of Gerontology 1980; 35: 836–841
  • Dudgeon S. R., Buss L. B. Growing with the flow: on the maintenance and malleability of colony form in the hydroid hydractinia. The American Naturalist 1996; 147: 667–691
  • Duke-Elder S., Abrams D. Ophthalmic optics and refraction. System of Ophthalmology, S. Duke-Elder. Kimpton, London 1970; Vol 5: 234–239
  • Eccles J. C. Evolution of consciousness. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1992; 89: 7320–7324
  • Egan V., Wickett J. C., Vernon P. A. Brain size and intelligence: erratum, addendum, and correction. Personality & Individual Differences 1995; 19: 113–115
  • Eysenck H. Book Review. Personality & Individual Differences 1991; 12: 655
  • Fitch W. M., Atchley W. R. Evolution of inbred strains of mice appears rapid. Science 1985; 228: 1169–1175
  • Flood S. D., Guarnaccia M., Coleman P. D. Dendritic extent in human CA2–3 hippocampal pyramidal neurons in normal aging and senile dementia. Brain Research 1987; 409: 88–96
  • Flynn J. R. Lynn, the Japanese and environmentalism. Bulletin of the British Psychological Society 1982; 35: 409–413
  • Flynn J. R. The mean IQ of Americans: massive gains 1932 to 1978. Psychological Bulletin 1984; 95: 29–51
  • Flynn J. R. Massive IQ gains in 14 nations. Psychological Bulletin 1987; 101: 171–191
  • Fraguedakis-Tsolis S., Hauffe H. C., Searle J. B. Genetic distinctiveness of house mice: relevance to speciation and chromosomal evolution. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B 1997; 264: 355–360
  • Frydman M., Lynn R. The intelligence of Korean children adopted in Belgium. Personality and Individual Differences 1989; 10: 1323–1326
  • Gardner H. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Basic Books, New York 1985
  • Geschwind N., Behan P. Laterality, hormones, and immunity. Cerebral Dominance: The Biological Foundations, N. Geschwind, A. Galaburda. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA 1984; 211–224
  • Gladwin T. East is a Big Bird. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA 1970
  • Goss D. A., Jackson T. W. Clinical findings before the onset of myopia in youth: 4. parental history of myopia. Optometry and Vision Science 1996; 73: 279–282
  • Grosvenor T. Myopia in Melanesian school children in Vanuatu. Acta Ophthalmologica, Supplement 1988; 185: 24–28
  • Gwiazda J., Thorn F., Bauer J., Held R. Enmetropization and the progression of manifest refraction in children followed from infancy to puberty. Clinical Vision Sciences 1993; 8: 337–344
  • Hall B. G. Spontaneous point mutations that occur more often when advantageous than when neutral. Genetics 1990; 126: 5–16
  • Hall B. G. Adaptive evolution that requires multiple spontaneous mutations: mutations involving base substitutions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1991; 88: 5882–5886
  • Hanks S. D., Flood D. G. Region-specific stability of dendritic extent in normal human aging and regression in Alzheimer's disease. I. CA1 of hippocampus. Brain Research 1991; 540: 63–82
  • Haug H. Are neurons of the cerebral cortex really lost during aging?. Senile Dementia of the Alzheimer Type, J. Traber, W. H. Gispen. Springer-Verlag, Beri 1985; 150–163
  • Haug H. Brain size, surfaces, and neuronal sizes of the cortex cerebri. American Journal of Anatomy 1987; 180: 126–142
  • Henderson G., Tomlinson B. E., Gibson P. H. Cell counts in human cerebral cortex in normal adults throughout life using an image analyzing computer. Journal of the Neurological Sciences 1980; 46: 113–136
  • Herrnstein R. J., Murray C. The Bell Cur. The Free Press, New York 1994
  • Ho K., Roessmann U., Straumfjord J. V., Monroe G. Analysis of brain weight. Archives of Pathology and Laboratory of Medicine 1980; 104: 635–645
  • Horn J. M., Loehlin J. C., Willerman L. Intellectual resemblance among adoptive and biological relatives: The Texas Adoption Project. Behavior Genetics 1979; 9: 177–207
  • Howell J. R. Changes in Wechsler subtest scores by age. Journal of Consulting Psychology 1995; 19: 47–50
  • Jack C. R., Tworney C. K., Zinsmeister A. R., Sharbrough F. W., Peterson R. C., Cascino G. D. Anterior temporal lobes and hippocampal formations: normative volumetric measurements from MR images in young adults. Radiology 1989; 172: 549–554
  • Jernigan T. L., Archibald S. L., Berhow M. T., Sowell E. R., Foster D. S., Hesselink J. R. Cerebral Structure on MRI, Part I: localization of age-related changes. Biological Psychiatry 1991; 29: 55–67
  • Johnson F. M., Aquadro C. E., Skow L. C., Langley C. H., Lewis S. E. Rapid mutations in mice?. Science 1985; 230: 1406–1409
  • Johnson G. J. Myopia in arctic regions. Acta Ophthalmologica, Supplement 1988; 185: 13–18
  • Jones H. E., Conrad H. S. The growth and decline of intelligence: a study of a homogeneous group between the ages of ten and sixty. Genetic Psychology Monographs 1933; 13: 223–298
  • Jörnvall H., Shafqat J., El-Ahmad M., Hjelmqvist L., Persson B., Danielsson O. Alcohol dehydrogenase variability: evolutionary and functional conclusions. Enzymology and Molecular Biology of Carbonyl Metabolism. Plenum Press, New York 1996; 6
  • Kahn A. J. Aleration of paternal environment prior to mating. Effect of hemoglobin concentration in offspring of CF1 mice. Growth 1970; 34: 215–220
  • Kahn A. J. Alterability of development of hemoglobin concentration in mice: Transmission of changes to the next generation. Growth 1982a; 46: 247–258
  • Kahn A. J. A generational drift in rate of development of aversion to ethanol: associated shift in the sensitive period. Growth 1982b; 46: 322–330
  • Karlsson J. L. Concordance rates for myopia in twins. Clinical Genetics 1974; 6: 142–146
  • Kaufman A. S., Kaufman-Packer J. L., McLean J. E., Reynolds C. R. Is the pattern of intellectual growth and decline across adult life span different for men and women. Journal of Clinical Psychology 1991; 47: 802–812
  • Kemper T. Neuroanatomical and neuropathological changes in normal aging and in dementia. Clinical Neurobiology of Aging2nd ed., Knoepfel Albert. Oxford University Press, New York 1994; 3–67
  • Keverne E. B., Martel F. L., Nevison C. M. Primate brain evolution: genetic and functional considerations. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B 1996; 263: 689–696
  • Keverne E. B., Fundele R., Narasimha M., Barton S. C., Surami M. A. Genomic Imprinting and the differential roles of parental genomes in brain development. Developmental Brain Research 1996; 92: 91–100
  • Khosla A., Lowe C. R. Height and weight of British men. The Lancet 1968; i: 742–745
  • King M.-C., Wilson A. C. Evolution at two levels in humans and chimpanzees. Science 1975; 188: 107–116
  • Kiyono S., Seo M. L., Shibagaki M., Inouye M. Facilitative effects of maternal environmental enrichment on maze learning in rat offspring. Physiology and Behavior 1985; 34: 431–435
  • Ko L. S. Medical treatment of school myopia. Transactions of the Society for Ophthalmology of Singapore 1965; 4: 42–56
  • Ko L. S., Liu H. S., Yang Y. K. Survey of the refraction on the primary school students in Taipei. Formosan Journal of Medicine 1959; 58: 336–354
  • Kostovic I. Structural and histochemical reorganization of the human prefrontal cortex during perinatal and postnatal life. Progress in Brain Research 1990; 85: 223–237
  • Kostovic I., Skavic J., Strinovic D. Acetylcholinesterase in the human frontal associative cortex during the period of cognitive development: Early laminar shifts and late innervation of pyramidal neurons. Neuroscience Letters 1988; 90: 107–112
  • Kretschmann H.-J., Schleicher A., Wingert F., Zilles K., Loblich H. J. Human brain growth in the 19th and 20th century. Journal of the Neurological Sciences 1979; 40: 169–188
  • Leahy A. M. Nature, nurture and intelligence. Genetic Psychology Monographs 1935; 17: 237–307
  • Leuba G., Kraftsik R. Changes in volume, surface estimate, three-dimensional shape and total number of neurons of the human primary visual cortex from midgestation until old age. Anatomy and Embryology 1994; 190: 351–366
  • Levinson B. M. A comparison of the verbal and performance ability of monolingual and bilingual native-born Jewish preschool children of traditional parentage. Journal of Genetic Psychology 1959; 97: 93–112
  • Levinson B. M. Cognitive skills of eastern-European Jewish males. Perceptual and Motor Skills 1977; 45: 279–283
  • Lewis D. How to Be a Gifted Parent. Norton, New York 1979
  • Lim K. O., Zipursky R. B., Watts M. C., Pfefferbaum A. Decreased gray matter volume in normal aging: An in vivo magnetic resonance study. Journal of Gerontology 1992; 47: B26–B30
  • Lin L. L., Chen C. J., Hung P. T., Ko L. S. Nation-wide survey of myopia among school-children in Taiwan, 1986. Acta Ophthalmologica, Supplement 1988; 185: 29–33
  • Lin L. L., Hung P. T., Ko L. S., Hou P.-K. Study of myopia among aboriginal school children in Taiwan. Acta Ophthalmologica, Supplement 1988; 185: 34–37
  • Lin L. L. -K., Hung L.-F., Shin Y.-F., Hung P.-T., Ko L.-S. Correlation of optical components with ocular refraction among teenagers in Taipei. Acta Ophthalmologica, Supplement 1988; 185: 69–73
  • Linn R., Pagliari C., Chen J. Intelligence in Hong Kong measured by Spearman's and the visual and verbal primaries. Intelligence 1988; 12: 423–433
  • Lynn R. IQ in Japan and the United States shows a growing disparity. Nature 1982; 297: 222–223
  • Lynn R., Hampson S. L. The rise of national intelligence: evidence from Britain, Japan, and the U.S.A. Personality & Individual Differences 1986; 7: 23–32
  • Lynn R., Wilson R. Special book review. Personality & Individual Differences 1991; 12: 323–326
  • Mantyjarvi M. I. Predicting of myopia progression in school children. Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology & Strabismus 1985; 22: 71–75
  • Martin W. J. The physique of young adult males. Medical Research Council 1949, Memo 20
  • Matusa R. Animal Evolution in Changing Environments. Wiley, New York 1987
  • Miles C. C., Miles W. R. The correlation of intelligence scores and chronological age from early to late maturity. American Journal of Psychology 1932; 44: 44–78
  • Miller A. K. H., Alston R. I., Corsellis J. A. N. Variations with age in the volumes of gray and white matter in the cerebral hemispheres of man: measurements with an image analyzer. Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology 1980; 6: 119–132
  • Miller A. K. H., Corsellis J. A. N. Evidence for a secular increase in human brain weight during the past century. Annals of Human Biology 1977; 4: 253–257
  • Miller R. W. A study of factors associated with loss of distance visual acuity among children in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Ph.D Thesis, University of Michigan. 1961, School of Public Health
  • Minkovitz J. B., Essary L. R., Walker R. S., Cansure E., Cabrera G. M., Koch D. D., Pepose J. S. Comparative corneal topography and refractive parameters in monozygotic and dizygotic twins. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science 1993; 34: 1218, (Supplement)
  • Mohan M., Padrasi S., Garg S. P. The role of environmental factors and hereditary predisposition in the causation of low myopia. Acta Ophthalmologica, Supplement 1988; 185: 54–57
  • Morgan R. W., Speakman J. S., Grimshaw S. E. Inuit myopia: an environmentally induced epidemic. Canadian Medical Association Journal 1975; 112: 575–577
  • Morsbach H. Aspects of nonverbal communication in Japan. Journal of Neuron and Mental Disease 1973; 157: 262–277
  • Mountcastle V. The evolution of ideas concerning the function of the neocortex. Cerebral Cortex 1995; 5: 289–295
  • Norton T. T. A new focus on myopia. JAMA 1994; 271: 1363–1364
  • Ounstead M., Moar V., Scott A. Head circumference charts updated. Archives of Disease in Childhood 1985; 60: 936–939
  • Pakkenberg B., Gubdersen H. G. J. Neocortical neuron number in humans: effect of sex and age. The Journal of Comparative Neurology 1997; 384: 312–320
  • Pfefferbaum A., Mathalon D. H., Sullivan E. V., Rawles J. M., Zipursky R. B., Lim K. O. A quantitative magnetic resonance imaging study of changes in brain morphology from infancy to late adulthood. Archives of Neurology 1994; 51: 874–887
  • Pierce V. A., Crawford D. L. Phylogenetic analysis of glycolytic enzyme expression. Science 1997a; 276: 256–259
  • Pierce V. A., Crawford D. L. Phylogenetic analysis of thermal acclimation of the glycolytic enzyme expression in the genus Fundulus. Physiological Zoology 1997b; 70: 597–609
  • Plomin R., DeFries J. C. A parent-offspring adoption study of cognitive abilities in early childhood. Intelligence 1985; 9: 341–356
  • Post R. H. Population differences in visual acuity: A review, with speculative notes on selection relaxation. Eugenics Quarterly 1962; 9: 189–212
  • Postiglione A., Soricelli A., Covell K. M., Iazzetta N., Ruocco A., Milan G., Santoro L., Alfano B., Brunetti A. Premature aging in Werner's syndrome spares the central nervous system. Neurobiology of Aging 1996; 17: 325–330
  • Racine R. R., Langley C. H. Genetic heterozygosity in a natural population of mus musculus assessed using two-dimensional electrophoresis. Nature 1980; 283: 855
  • Raz N., Torres I. J., Spencer W. D., Acker J. D. Pathocysis in aging human cerebral cortex: evidence from in vivo MRI morphology. Psychobiology 1993; 21: 151–160
  • Raz N., Gunning F. M., Head D., Dupuis J. H., McQuain J., Briggs S. D., Loken W. J., Thornton A. E., Acker J. D. Selective aging of the human cerebral cortex observed in vivo: differential vulnerability of the prefrontal grey matter. Cerebral Cortex 1997; 7: 268–282
  • Reiss A. L., Abrams M. T., Singer H. S., Ross J. L., Denkla M. B. Brain development, gender and IQ in children: a volumetric imaging study. Brain 1996; 119: 1763–1774
  • Richler A., Bear J. C. Refraction, network and education. Acta Ophthalmologics 1980; 58: 468–478
  • Rockel A. J., Hiorns R. W., Powell T. P. S. The basic uniformity in structure of the neocortex. Brain 1980; 103: 221–244
  • Röthig W. Korrelationen zwischen Gessamthirn und Kkeinhirngewicht des Menschen in Laufe der Ontogenese. Journal Hirnforsch 1974; 15: 203–209
  • Rouquier S., Taxiaux S., Trask B. J., Brand-Arpon V., van den Engh G., Demaille J., Giorgi D. Distribution of olfactory receptor genes in the human genome. Nature Genetics 1998; 18: 243–250
  • Rubin H. The significance of biological heterogeneity. Cancer and Metastasis Reviews 1990a; 9: 1–120
  • Rubin H. On the nature of enduring modifications induced in cells and organisms. American Journal of Physiology 1990b; 258: L19–L24
  • Scarr S., Weinberg R. A. Intellectual similarities within families of both adopted and biological children. Intelligence 1977; 1: 170–191
  • Schaie K. W. The Seattle longitudinal study: a 21-year exploration of psychometic intelligence in adulthood. Longitudinal Studies of Adult Psychological Development, K. W. Schaie. Guilford Press, New York 1983
  • Schaie K. W. Variability in cognitive function in the elderly: implications for social participation. Phenotypic Variations in Populations: Relevance to Risk Management, A. Woodhead, M. Bender, R. Leonard. Plenum, New York 1988
  • Spelke E. S. Perceiving bimodally specified events in infancy. Developmental Psychology 1979; 15: 626–636
  • Stein Z., Susser M., Saenger G., Marolla F. Nutrition and mental performance. Science 1972; 178: 708–713
  • Storfer M. D. Intelligence and Giftedness: The Contributions of Heredity and Early Environment. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco & Oxford 1990
  • Storfer M. D. How Japanese mothering practices heighten spatial structural reasoning ability. Mensa Research Journal 1991; 31: 120–128
  • Storfer M. D. Problems in left-right discrimination in a high-IQ population. Perceptual and Motor Skills 1995; 81: 491–497
  • Storfer M. D. The neuroanatomy of language-oriented analytical reasoning. Telicom 1998; XX(18)69–74
  • Sullivan E. V., Marsh L., Mathalon D. H., Lim K. O., Pfefferbaum A. Age-related decline in MRI volumes of temporal lobe gray matter but not hippocampus. Neurobiology of Aging 1995; 16: 591–606
  • Sullivan J. W., Horowitz F. D. Intermodal perception in infancy and its implications for language development. Advances in Infancy Research, L. Lipsett. Ablex, Norwood, N.J. 1983; 2
  • Tay M. T. H., Au Eong K. G., Ng C. V., Lim M. K. Myopia and educational attainment in 421,116 Singaporean Males. Annals (Academy of Medicine, Singapore) 1992; 21: 785–791
  • Teikari J. M., Donnell J. O., Kaprio J., Koskenvuo M. Impact of heredity in myopia. Human Heredity 1991; 41: 151–156
  • Terman L. M. The Measurement of Intelligence. Houghton Mifflin, Boston 1916
  • Terry R. D., DeTeresa R., Hansen L. A. Neocortical cell counts in normal human aging. Annals of Neurology 1987; 21: 530–539
  • Twan Y.-F. Topophilia. Princeton University Press, Englewood Cliffs, N. J. 1974
  • Uemura E., Hartmann H. A. RNA content and volume of nerve cell bodies in human brain. Journal of Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology 1977; 37: 487–496
  • Waldemar G., Hasselbalch S. G., Anderson A. R., Delecluse F., Peterson P., Johnsen A., Paulson O. H. 99mTc-d l-HMPAO and SPECT of the brain in normal aging. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism 1991; 11: 508–521
  • Wechsler D. Manual for the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, TX 1955
  • Wechsler D. Manual for the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Revised. Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, TX 1981
  • Weinstein S., Teuber H.-L. Effects of penetrating brain injury on intelligence test scores. Science 1957; 125: 1036–1037
  • Weismann A. Die Entstehung der Sexual Zellen bei den Hydromedusen. Gustov Fisher, Jena 1883
  • Weismann A. Concept of the germ plasm. Essays Upon Heredity, E. Poulton, et al. Clarendon Press, Oxford 1893
  • West M. J. Regionally specific loss of neurons in the aging human hippocampus. Neurobiology of Aging 1993; 14: 287–293
  • Whitehead R. G., Paul A. A. Comparative infant nutrition in man and animals. Proceedings on the International Symposium on Comparative Nutrition. Libby, London 1988
  • Wickett J. C., Vernon P. A., Lee D. E. In vivo brain size, head perimeter, and intelligence in a sample of healthy adult females. Personality & Individual Differences 1994; 16: 831–838
  • Willerman L., Schultz R., Rutledge J. N., Bigler E. D. In vivo brain size and intelligence. Intelligence 1991; 15: 223–228
  • Willhoughby R. R. Family similarities in mental-test development. Genetic Psychology Monographs 1927; 2: 235–278
  • Williams R. W., Cavada C., Reinoso-Suarez F. Rapid evolution of the visual system A cellular assay of the retina and dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus of the Spanish wild cat and the domestic cat. The Journal of Neuroscience 1993; 13: 208–228
  • Wilson A. C., Bush G. L., Case S. M., King M.-C. Social structuring of mammalian populations and rate of chromosomal evolution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1975; 72: 5061–5065
  • Wilson A. C., Carlson S. S., White T. J. Biochemical evolution. Annual Review of Biochemistry 1977; 46: 573–639
  • Wilson A. C., Sarich V. M., Maxson L. R. The importance of gene rearrangement in evolution: evidence from studies on rates of chromosomal, protein and anatomical evolution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1974; 71: 3028–3030
  • Yoshii F., Barker W. W., Chang J. Y., Loewenstein D., Apicella A., Smith D., Boothe T., Ginsberg M. D., Pascal S., Duara R. Sensitivity of cerebral glucose metabolism to age, gender, brain volume, brain atrophy, and cerebrovascular risk factors. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism 1988; 8: 654–661
  • Young H. A., Leary G. A., Baldwin W. R., West D. C., Box R. A., Harris E., Johnson C. The transmission of refractive errors within Eskimo families. American Journal of Optometry and Archives of the American Academy of Optometry 1969; 46: 676–685
  • Zadnik K. Myopia development in childhood. Optometry and Vision Science 1995; 74: 603–608
  • Zadnik K., Mutti D. O., Friedman N. E., Adams A. J. Initial cross-sectional results from the Orinda longitudinal study of myopia. Optometry and Vision Science 1993; 70: 750–758
  • Zaslavski C. Africa Counts: The Number and Pattern of African Cultures. Prindle, Weber & Smith, Boston, MA 1973
  • Zipursky R. B., Lim K. O., Sullivan E. V., Brown B. W., Pfefferbaum A. Widespread cerebral gray matter volume deficits in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 1992; 49: 195–205
  • Zylbermann R., Landau D., Berson D. The influence of study habits on myopia of Jewish teenagers. Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology & Strabismus 1993; 30: 319–322
  • Allen N. D., Logan K., Lally G., Drage D. J., Norris M. L., Keverne H. B. Distribution of parthenogenic cells in the mouse brain and their influence on brain development and behavior. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1995; 92: 10782–10786
  • Allport G. W., Pelligrew T. F. Cultural influence on the perception of movement: the trapezoidal illusion among Zulus. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 1957; 66: 101–113
  • Anderson S. A., Eisenstat D. D., Shi L., Rubenstein J. L. R. Interneuron migration from basal forrbrain to neocortex: dependence on Dlx genes. Science 1997; 278: 474–476
  • Armstrong D. M. Ultrastructural characterization of choline acetyltransferase-containing neurons, in the basal forebrain of the rat: Evidence for a cholinergic innervation. Journal of Comparative Neurology 1986; 250: 81–92
  • Arezzo F. Sea urchin sperm as a vector of foreign genetic information. Cell Biology International Reports 1989; 13: 391–404
  • Ashley M. V., Lapidis P. J., Hauswirth W. W. Rapid segregation of heteroplasmic bovine mitochondria. Nucleic Acids Research 1989; 17: 7325–7331
  • Ayer-LeLievre C., Olson L., Ebendal T., Gallbook F., Persson H. Nerve growth factor mRNA and protein in the testis and epididymis of mouse and rat. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1988; 85: 2628–2632
  • Bardin C. W., Cheng C. Y., Musto N. A., Gunsalus G. L. The Sertoli cell. The Physiology of Reproduction, E. Knobil, J. Neil. Raven Press, New York 1988; 933–974
  • Barlow D. Gametic imprinting in mammals. Science 1995; 270: 1610–1613
  • Belmont I., Marolla F. A. Birth order, family size, and intelligence. Science 1973; 182: 1096–1101
  • Belmont I., Stein Z., Zybert P. Intellectual abilities in two-child families. Science 1978; 202: 995–996
  • Bendall L. E., Sykes B. C. Length heteroplasmy in the first hypervariable segment of the human mtDNA control region. American Journal of Human Genetics 1995; 57: 244–256
  • Boer P. H., Adra C. N., Lau Y. F., McBurney M. W. The testis-specific phosphoglycerate kinase gene pgk-2 is a recruited retroposon. Molecular and Cellular Biology 1987; 7: 3107–3112
  • Boore J. L. Transmission of mitochondrial DNA: playing favorites?. BioEssays 1997; 19: 751–753
  • Bouchard T. J., Jr., MeGue M. Familial studies of intelligence: A review. Science 1981; 212: 1055–1059
  • Braun R. S. Every sperm is sacred or is it?. Nature Genetics 1998; 18: 202–204
  • Bunzel R., Blümcke L., Cichon S., Normann S., Schramm J., Propping P., Nothen M. M. Polymorphic imprinting of the serotonin-2A (5-HT) receptor gene in human aduit brain. Brain Research: Molecular Brain Research 1998; 59: 90–92
  • Cattanach B. M., Beechey C. V. Genomic imprinting of the mouse: possible final analysis. Genomic Imprinting, W. Reik, A. Surani. IRL Oxford University Press, New York 1997
  • Chaillet J. R., Vogt T. F., Beier D. R., Leder P. Parental-specific methylation of an imprinted transgene is established during gametogenesis and progressively changes during embryogenesis. Cell 1991; 66: 77–83
  • Chapmen J. C., Waterhouse T. B., Michael S. D. Changes in mitochondrial and microsomal 3 -hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity in mouse ovary over the course of the estrous cycle. Biology of Reproduction 1992; 47: 992–997
  • Chorney M. J., Chorney K., Seese N., Owen M. J., Daniels J., McGuffin P., Thompson D. N., Detterman D. K., Benbow C., Lubinski D., Eley T., Plomin R. A quantitative trait locus associated with cognitive ability in children. Psychological Science 1998; 9: 159–166
  • Chugani H. T., Phelps M. E., Mazziotta J. C. Positron emission tomography study of human brain functional development. Annals of Neurology 1987; 22: 487–497
  • Dahl H.-H. M., Brown R. M., Hutchison W. M., Maragos C., Brown G. K. A testis-specific form of the human pyruvate dehydrogenase El-alpha subunit is coded for by an intronless gene on chromosome 4. Genomics 1990; 8: 225–232
  • Davidson R. G., Conner J. A. Mitochondria malate dehydrogenase: A new genetic polymorphisms in man. Science 1967; 157: 1569–1571
  • Davidson R. G., Cortner J. A., Rattazzi M. C. Genetic polymorphisms of human mitochondrial glutamic oxaloacetate transminase. Science 1970; 169: 391–392
  • Davies N. B. Dunnock Behavior and Social Evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1992
  • DiFiglia M. Synaptic organization of cholinergic neurons in the monkey neostriatum. Journal of Comparative Neurology 1987; 255: 245–258
  • Dover G. A. Observing development through evolutionary eyes: A practical approach. BioEssays 1992; 14: 281–287
  • Driscol D. J., Migeon B. R. Sex differences in methylation of single-copy genes an meiotic germ cells: Implications for X-chromosome inactivation, parental imprinting and origin of CpG mutations. Somatic Cell and Molecular Genetics 1990; 16: 267–283
  • Farrell B. D. “Inordinate fondness” explained: why are there so many beetles?. Science 1998; 281: 555–558
  • Fawcett D. W. Ultrastructure and function of the Sertoli cell. Handbook of Physiology. Male Reproductive System, V(Endocrinolog), D. W. Hamilton, R. O. Greep, 1975; 21–55
  • Feil R., Kelsey G. Insights from model systems. Genomic imprinting: a chromatin connection. American Journal of Human Genetics 1997; 61: 1213–1219
  • Fundele R. H., Surani M. A. Experimental embryological analysis of genetic imprinting in mouse development. Developmental Genetics 1994; 15: 515–522
  • Fundele R. H., Surani M. A., Allen N. D. Consequences of genomic imprinting for fetal development. Genomic Imprinting, W. Reik, A. Surani. IRL/Oxford University Press, New York 1997; 98–112
  • Gage M. J. G. Mammalian sperm morphology. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London (Series B) 1998; 265: 97–103
  • Galton F. English Men of Science: Their Nature and Nurture. Macmillan, New York 1874
  • Gatewood J. M., Cook G. R., Balhorn R., Bradbury E. M., Schmid C. W. Sequence-specific packaging of DNA in human sperm chromatin. Science 1987; 236: 962–964
  • Gerez de Burgos N. M., Gallina F., Burgos C., Blanco A. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 1994; 308: 520–524
  • Ghazi H., Magewu A. N., Gonzoles F., Jones P. A. Changes in the allelic methylation patterns of c-h-ras-1 insulin and retinoblastoma genes in human development. Development 1990, 1990 (Supplement): 115–123
  • Goertzel M. G., Goertzel V., Goertzel T. G. Three Hundred Eminent Personalities. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco 1978
  • Grossman L. I., Shoubridge E. A. Mitochondrial genetics and human disease. BioEssays 1996; 18: 983–991
  • Gupta R. S., Aitken K., Falah M., Singh B. Cloning of Giardia lamblia heat shock protein HSP70 homologs. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1994; 91: 2895–2899
  • Guttenbach M., Schmid M., Jauch A., Vogt P. The Y chromosome of the mouse is decondensed in Sertoli cells. Chromosoma 1989; 87: 429–433
  • Gyllenstein U., Wharton D., Joesfsson A., Wilson A. C. Paternal inheritance of mitochondrial DNA in mice. Nature 1991; 352: 255–257
  • Haaf T., Steinlein C., Schmid M. Nucleolar transcriptional activity in mouse Sertoli cells is dependent en centromere arrangement. Experimental Cell Research 1990; 191: 157–160
  • Hawkes K., O'Donnell J. F., Blurton-Jones N. G., Alvarez H., Cgarnov E. L. Grandmothering, menopause, and the evolution of human life histories. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1998; 95: 1336–1339
  • Hoeh W. R., Blakley K. H., Brown W. M. Heteroplasmy suggests limited biparental inheritance of mytihus mitochondrial DNA. Science 1991; 251: 1488–1490
  • Holliday R. Quantitative genetic variation and developmental clocks. Journal of Theoretical Biology 1991; 151: 351–358
  • Holliday R. Mechanisms for the control of gene activity during development. Biology Review 1990; 65: 431–471
  • Huttenlocher P. R. Synaptic density in human frontal cortex: Developmental changes and effects of aging. Brain Research 1979; 163: 195–205
  • Jegou B. Baillieres Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 1992; 6: 273–311, The Sertoli cell. In: de Kretser, D. M. (Eds.) The Testes
  • Jenuth J. P., Peterson A. C., Shoubridge E. A. Tissue-specific selection for different mtDNA genotypes in heteroplasmic mice. Nature Genetics 1997; 16: 93–95
  • Jeppesen P. Histone acetylation: a possible mechanism for the inheritance of cell memory at mitosis. Bioessays 1997; 19: 67–74
  • John R. M., Surani M. A. Imprinted genes and regulation of gene expression by epigenetic inheritance. Current Opinion in Cell Biology 1996; 8: 348–353
  • Kaas J. H., Merzenich M. M., Killackey H. P. The reorganization of somatosensory cortex following peripheral nerve damage in adult and developing mammals. Annual Review of Neuroscience 1983; 6: 325–356
  • Kafri T., Ariel M., Brandeis M., Shemer R., Urven L., McCarrey J., Cedar H., Razin A. Developmental pattern of gene-specific DNA methylation in the mouse embryo and germ line. Genes and Development 1992; 6: 705–714
  • Kanbour-Shakir A., Kunz H. W., Gill T. J., III. Differential genomic imprinting of major histocompatibility complex class I antigens in the placenta of the rat. Biology of Reproduction 1993; 48: 977–986
  • Kaneda H., Hayashi J.-I., Takahama S., Taya C., Lindahl K. F., Yonekawa H. Elimination of paternal mitochondrial DNA in intraspecific crosses during early mouse embryogenesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1995; 92: 4542–4546
  • Keverne E. B., Martel F. L., Nevison C. M. Primate brain evolution: genetic and functional considerations. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B 1996; 263: 689–696
  • Keverne E. B., Fundele R., Narasimha M., Barton S. C., Surami M. A. Genomic Imprinting and the differential roles of parental genomes in brain development. Developmental Brain Research 1996; 92: 91–100
  • Killackey H. P. Neocortical Expansion: An attempt toward relating phylogeny and ontogeny. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 1990; 2: 1–16
  • Kirszbaum L., Sharpe J. A., Murphy B., Apice A. J. P., Classon B., Hudson P., Waiker I. D. Molecular cloning and characterization of the novel, human complement associated protein. SP—40,40: A link between the complement and reproductive systems. EMBO Journal 1989; 8: 711–718
  • Koehler C. M., Lindberg G. L., Brown D. R., Beitz D. C., Freeman A. E., Mayfield J. E., Myers A. M. Replacement of bovine mitochondrial DNA by a sequence variant within one generation. Genetics 1991; 128: 247–255
  • Kondo R., Satta Y., Matsuura E. T., Ishiwa H., Takahata N., Chigusa S. I. Incomplete maternal transmission of mitochondrial DNA in Drosophila. Genetics 1990; 126: 657–663
  • Kostovic I. Structural and histochemical reorganization of the human prefrontal cortex during perinatal and postnatal life. Progress in Brain Research 1990; 85: 223–237
  • Kostovic I., Skavic J., Strinovic D. Acetylcholinesterase in the human frontal associative cortex during the period of cognitive development: Early laminar shifts and late innervation of pyramidal neurons. Neuroscience Letters 1988; 90: 107–112
  • Kubota T., Das S., Christian S. L., Baylin S. B., Herman J. G., Ledbetter D. H. Methylation-specific PCR simplifies imprinting analysis. Nature Genetics 1997; 16: 16–17
  • Laursen H. B., Jorgensen A. L., Jones C., Bak A. L. Higher rate of evolution of chromosome alpha-repeat DNA in human than in the great apes. EMBO Journal 1992; 11: 2367–2372
  • Lavitrano M. Sperm cells as vectors for introducing foreign DNA into eggs: genetic transformation of mice. Cell 1989; 57: 717–723
  • Law R., Hutson V. Intracellular symbionts and the evolution of uniparental cytoplasmic inheritence. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 1992; B248: 69–77
  • Leong S. K. Localizing the corticospinal neurons in neonatal, developing and mature albino rats. Brain Research 1983; 265: 1–9
  • Lumsden A., Gulisano M. Neocortical neurons: where do they come from?. Science 1997; 278: 402–403
  • Ma W., Behar I., Barker J. L. Transient expression of GABA immunoreactivity in the developing rat spinal cord. Journal of Comparative Anatomy 1992; 325: 271–290
  • McCarrey J. R., Thomas K. Human testis-specific PKG gene lacks introns and possesses characteristics of a processed gene. Nature 1987; 326: 501–505
  • McGuffin P., Scourfield J. A father's imprint on his daughter's thinking. Nature 1997; 387: 652–653
  • MeKenna V. V., Null C. B., Ventis I. Marital Age and the Spacing of Children. National Institute for Child Development, Washington, D.C. 1979, (Center for Population Research)
  • Moore I., Constancia M., Zubair M., Bailleul B., Feil R., Sasaki H., Reik W. Multiple imprinted sense and antisense transcripts: differential methylation and tandem repeats of a putative imprinting control region upstream of mouse Ig 2. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1997; 94: 12509–12514
  • Moss S. B., Orth J. M. Localization of a spermatid-specific histone 2B protein in round spermatids. Biology of Reproduction 1993; 48: 1047–1056
  • Mrzljak L., Uylings H. B. M., van Eden C. G., Judas M. Neuronal development in human prefrontal cortex in prenatal and postnatal stages. Progress in Brain Research 1990; 85: 185–222
  • Narasimha M., Barton S. C., Surani M. A. The role of the paternal genome in the-development of the mouse germ line. Current Biology 1997; 7: 881–884
  • Newman R. A. Genetic variation for adaptive plasticity in the development of Scaphiopus Couchii in desert ponds. Evolution 1988a; 42: 763–773
  • Newman R. A. Adaptive plasticity in the development of Scaphiopus Couchii in desert ponds. Evolution 1988b; 42: 774–783
  • Oden M. H. The fulfillment of promise: forty-year follow-up of the Terman gifted group. Genetic Psychology Monographs 1968; 77
  • Pandya D. N., Yeterian E. H. Architecture and connections of cerebral cortex: Implications for brain evolution and function. UCLA Forum in Medical Sciences, A. B. Scheibel, A. E. Wechsler, 1990a; 29: 53–84, (Neurobiology of Higher Cognitive Functions)
  • Pandya D. N., Yeterian E. H. Prefrontal cortex in relation to other cortical areas in rhesus monkey: Architecture and connections. Progress in Brain Research 1990b; 85: 63–94
  • Persson H., Ayer-LeLievre C., Soder O., Villar M. J., Metsis M., Olson L., Ritzen M., Hokfeld T. Expression of beta nerve growth factor receptor mRNA in Sertoli cells downregulated by testosterone. Science 1990; 247: 704–706
  • Plomin R., Fulker D. W., Corley R., DeEries J. C. Nature, nurture, and cognitive development from 1 to 16 years: a parent-offspring adoption study. Psychological Science 1997; 8: 442–447
  • Poulton J. Mitochondrial DNA and genetic disease. BioEssays 1992; 14: 763–767
  • Raczkowski D., Fitzpatrick D. Organization of cholinergic synapses in the cat's dorsal lateral geniculate and perigeniculate nuclei. Journal of Comparative Neurology 1989; 288: 676–690
  • Razin A., Shemer R. DNA methylation in early development. Human Molecular Genetics 1995; 4: 1751–1755
  • Record R. G., McKcown T., Edwards J. H. The relation of measured intelligence to birth order and maternal age. Annuls of Human Genetics (London) 1969; 33: 61–69
  • Reik W., Constancy M. Making sense or antisense. Nature 1997; 389: 669–671
  • Relief R. J., Winkfein R. J., Dixon G. H., Adroer R., Queralt R., Ballabriga J., Oliva R. Evolution of protamine PI genes in primates. Journal of Molecular Evolution 1993; 37: 426–434
  • Rivera M. C., Jain R., Moore J. E., Lake J. A. Genomic evidence for two functionally distinct gene classes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1998; 95: 6239–6244
  • Rockel A. J., Hiorns R. W., Powell T. P. S. The basic uniformity in structure of the neocortex. Brain 1980; 103: 221–244
  • Sapienza C. Sev-linked dosage-sensitive modifiers as imprinting genes. Development 1990; 107–113, 1990 Supplement
  • Satta Y., Toyohata N., Ohtaka C., Tatsuno Y., Watanabe T., Matsuura E. T., Chigusa S. I., Takahata N. Dubious maternal inheritance of mitochondrial DNA in D. simulans and evolution of D. mauritiana. Genetics Research 1988; 52: 1–6
  • Schlüter G., Engel W. The rat Prm3 gene is an intronless member of the protamine gene cluster and is expressed in haploid male germ cells. Cytogenetics and Cell Genetics 1995; 71: 352–355
  • Seidl K., Holstein A. F. Organ culture of human seminiferous tubules: A useful tool to study the role of nerve growth factor in the testes. Cell Tissue Research 1990; 261: 539–547
  • Shemer R., Birger Y., Riggs A. D., Razin A. Structure of the imprinted mouse Snrpn gene and establishment of its parental-specific methylation pattern. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1997; 94: 10267–10272
  • Simonds R. J., Scheibel A. B. The postnatal development of the motor speech area: a preliminary study. Brain and Language 1989; 37: 42–58
  • Skinner M. K. Cell-cell interactions in the testis. Endocrine Reviews 1991; 12: 45–77
  • Skuse D. H., James R. S., Bishop D. V. M., Coppin B., Dalton P., Aamodo-Leeper G., Bacarese-Hamikon M., Creswell C., McGurk R., Jacobs P. A. Evidence from Tyrner's syndrome of an imprinted X-linked locus affecting cognitive function. Nature 1997; 387: 705–708
  • Smrzka O. W., Fae I., Lurzbauer R., Eischer G. F., Henn T., Weith A., Barlow D. P. Conservation of a maternal-specific methylation signal at the human IGE2R locus. Human Molecular Genetics 1995; 4: 1945–1952
  • Sorgato M. C., Moran O. Channels in mitochondrial membranes: knowns, unknowns, and prospects for the future. Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 1993; 18: 127–171
  • Stanfield B. B. The development of the corticospinal projection. Progress in Neurobiology 1992; 38: 169–202
  • Stearns S. C. The Evolution of Life Histories. Oxford University Press, New York 1992
  • Tansler B., Hoppel C. L. Mitochondria. Academic Press, New York 1972
  • Tilghman S. M., Caspary T., Ingram R. S. Competive edge at the imprinted Prader-Willi/Angleman region?. Nature Genetics 1997; 18: 206–208
  • Trasler J. M., Hake L. E., Johnson P. A., Alcivar A. A., Millette C. F., Hechl N. B. DNA methylation and demethylation events during meiotic prophase in the mouse testis. Molecular and Cellular Biology 1990; 10: 1828–1834
  • Tucker K. L., Beard C., Dausman J., Jackson-Grusby L., Laird P. W., Lei H. Germ-line passage is required for establishment of methylation and expression patterns of imprinted but not of nonimprinted genes. Genes & Development 1996; 10: 1008–1020
  • Verhoeven G. Local control systems within the testes. The Testes. Bailliere's Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, D. M. de Kretser, 1992; 6: 313–333
  • Visher S. S. Environmental backgrounds of leading American scientists. American Sociological Review 1948; 13: 65–72
  • Vokkmer J.-Y., Clerc R. G. Homeobox genes in the developing mouse brain. Journal of Neurochemistry 1998; 71: 1–19
  • Waddington C. H. Genetic assimilation of an acquired character. Evolution 1953; 7: 118–126
  • Waddington C. H. The Strategy of Genes. Macmillan, New York 1957
  • Wallace D. C. Mitochondrial genetics: a paradigm for aging and degenerative diseases. Science 1992; 256: 628–632
  • Watson J. B., Sutcliffe J. G. Primate brain-specific cytoplasmic transcript of the Mu repeat family. Molecular and Cellular Biology 1987; 7: 3324–3327
  • Weichman K., Chaillet R. Phenotypic variation in a genetically identical population of mice. Molecular and Cellular Biology 1997; 17: 5269–5274
  • Yakolev P. I., Lecours A. P. The myelinalion cycles of regional maturation in tie brain. Regional Development of the Brain in Early Life, A. Minkowski. Blackwell, OxfordEngland 1967
  • Yoder G. H. A Study of the boyhood of great men. Pedagogical Seminary 1897; 3: 134–156
  • Zabludoff S. D., Erickson-Lawrence M., Wrieht W. W. Biology of Reproduction 1990; 43: 15–24
  • Zouros E., Ball A. O., Saavedra C., Freeman K. R. An unusual type of mitochondrial DNA inheritance in the blue mussel mytilus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1994; 91: 7463–7467
  • Buss L. W. The Evolution of Individuality. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J. 1987
  • Darwin C. Origin of Species by Natural Selection6th ed. Oxford University Press, Oxford England 1872, reprint (1956)
  • Diamond M. C., Chui D., Johnson R. E., Chalgren M., Greer E. R., Gibbons J. Increased cortical thickness in male progeny from enriched parents before and during gestation. Proceedings: 16th Annual Meeting of The Society for Neuroscience. 1984, No. 287.8
  • Gannon P. J., Holloway R. L., Broadfield D. C., Braun A. R. Asymmetry of chimpanzee pianum temporale: humanlike pattern of Wernicke's brain language area homolog. Science 1998; 279: 220–222
  • Gardner H. Fiames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Basic Books, New York 1985
  • Herschel A. The eastern European era in Jewish history. Yivo Annual of Jewish Social Science 1. Yiddish Scientific Institute, New York 1946
  • Hochberg A., DeGroot N., Rackmilewitz J., Gonik B. Genetic imprinting in human evolution: the decisive role of maternal lineage. Medical Hypotheses 1993; 41: 355–357
  • Johnson P. E. Darwin on Trial. Regnery Gateway, Washington, D. C 1991
  • Kao S. C., Lu H. Y., Liu J. H. Atropine effect on school myopia. Acta Ophthalmologica Supplement 1988; 185: 132–133
  • Lowe C. J., Wray G. A. Radical alterations in the roles of homeobox genes during echinoderm evolution. Nature 1997; 389: 718–721
  • Palmer E. A. Atropine treatment for myopia. Jama 1985; 254: 1374
  • Patarnello I., Bargellom I., Boncinelli F., Spada F., Pannes M., Broccoli V. Evolution of Em genes and brain development in vertebrates. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B 1997; 264: 1763–1766
  • Richardson M. K., Hanken J., Gooneratne M. I., Pieau C., Raynaud A., Selwood L., Wright G. M. There is no conserved embryonic stage in the vertebrates: implications for current theories of evolution and development. Anatomy and Embryology 1997; 196: 91–106
  • Savage-Rumbaugh V. S., Murphy J., Secvik R. A., Braake K. E., Williams S. L., Rumbaugh D. Language comprehension in ape and child. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 1993; 58(34)v-221
  • Savage-Rumbaugh E. S., Rumbaugh D. The emergence of language. Tools. Language and Cognition in Human Evolution, K. R. Gibson, T. Ingold. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1993; 86–108
  • Simone A., Acampora D., Gulisano M., Stornaiuolo A., Boneinelli E. Two vertebrate homeobox genes related to Drosophila empty spiracle gene are expressed in the embryonic cerebral cortex. Embo Journal 1993; 12: 2739–2747
  • Slack J. M. W., Holland P. W. H., Graham C. F. The zootype and the phylotype. stage. Nature 1993; 361: 490–492
  • Stanley S. M. The New Evolutionary Timetable. Basic Books, New York 1981
  • Storfer M. D. We, the gifted: Prevalence of childhood myopia and allergies in a high-IQ population. Mensa Bulletin December, 1994; 382: 11
  • Storfer M. D. Problems in left-right discrimination in a high-IQ population. Perceptual and Motor Skills 1995; 81: 491–497
  • Valentine J. W., Erwin D. E., Jablonski D. Developmental evolution of metazoan bodyplans: The fossil evidence. Developmental Biology 1996; 173: 373–381
  • Yeni-Komshian G. H., Benson D. A. Anatomical study of cerebral asymmetry in the temporal lobe of humans, chimpanzees, and rhesus monkeys. Science 1976; 192: 387–389

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.