Epidemiology and Etiology of Substance Use among American Indians and Alaska Natives: Risk, Protection, and Implications for Prevention

REFERENCES

• US Department of Commerce, US Census Bureau. Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin: 2010. Washington, DC: US Census Bureau, 2011.
   Google Scholar
• Bureau of Indian Affairs. Indian entities recognized and eligible to receive services from the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs. In 75 FR 60810 – Indian Entities Recognized and Eligible To Receive Services From the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs. Department of the Interior, ed. (Vol 75). Washington, DC: Federal Register, 2010, 60810–60814.
   Google Scholar
• US Department of Commerce, U. S. Census Bureau. The American Community–American Indians and Alaska Natives: 2004. American Community Survey Reports. Washington, DC: US Census Bureau, 2007.
   Google Scholar
• Kehoe AB. North American Indians: A Comprehensive Account Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1992.
   Google Scholar
• US Department of Commerce, US Census Bureau. Profile American: Facts for Features. American Indian and Alaska Native Heritage Month: November 2011. Washington, DC, US Census Bureau, 2011.
   Google Scholar
• Snipp CM. The size and distribution of the American Indian population: Fertility, mortality, migration, and residence. In Changing Numbers, Changing Needs: American Indian Demography and Public Health. Sandefur GD, Rindfuss RR, Cohen B, eds. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1996, 17–52.
   Google Scholar
• US Department of Health and Human Services. Trends in Indian Health: 2002–2003. Rockville, MD: Department of Health and Human Services, 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Welty TK. The epidemiology of alcohol use and alcohol-related health problems among American Indians and Alaska Natives. In Alcohol Use Among American Indians and Alaska Natives: Multiple Perspectives on a Complex Problem. Mail PD, Heurtin-Roberts S, Martin SE, Howard J, eds. ( Vol 37). Bethesda, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services, 2002, 49–70.
   Google Scholar
• US Department of Health and Human Services. Regional Differences in Indian Health: 2002–2003. Rockville, MD: Department of Health and Human Services, 2009.
   Google Scholar
• Beauvais F, Jumper-Thurman P, Burnside M. The changing patterns of drug use among American Indian students over the past thirty years. Am Indian Alsk Native Ment Health Res: J Natl Center 2008; 15(2):15–24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blum RW, Harmon B, Harris L, Bergeisen L, Resnick MD. Ameriacan Indian–Alaska Native youth health. JAMA 1992; 267(12):1637–1644.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plunkett M, Mitchell CM. Substance use rates among American Indian adolescents: Regional comparisons with Monitoring the Future high school seniors. J Drug Issues 2000; 30(3):593–620.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hawkins JD, Catalano RF, Kosterman R, Abbott RD, Hill KG. Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems in adolescence and early adulthood: Implications for substance use prevention. Psychological Bulletin 1992; 112:64–105.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kunitz SJ. Risk factors for polydrug use in a Native American population. Subst Use Misuse 2008; 43:331–339.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Novins DK, Indian Adolescent BA. Substance use: The hazards for progression for adolescents ages 14 to 20. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2004; 43:316–324.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robins LN, Pryzybeck PR. Age of onset of drug use as a factor of drug use and other disorders. In Etiology of Drug Abuse: Implications for Prevention (NIDA Research Monograph No. 56). Jones CL, Battjes RJ, eds. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1985, 178–192.
   Google Scholar
• Whitbeck LZ, Yu M, Johnson KK, Hoyt DR, Walls ML. Diagnostic prevalence rates from early to mid-adolescence among indigenous adolescents: First results from a longitudinal study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2008; 47(8):890–900.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitesell NR, Beals J, Mitchell CM, Keane EM, Spicer P, Turner RJ. The relationship of cumulative and proximal adversity to onset of substance dependence symptoms in two American Indian communities. Drug Alcohol Depend 2007; 91(2–3):279–288.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anthony JC, Petronis KR. Early-onset drug use and risk of later drug problems. Drug Alcohol Depend 1995; 40(1):9–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spicer P, Beals J, Mitchell CM, Croy CD, Novins DK, Moore L, Manson SM, American Indian Service Utilization, Psychiatric Epidemiology, Risk and Protective Factors Project Team. The prevalence of DSM-III-R alcohol dependence in two American Indian populations. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2003; 27(11):1785–1797.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beals J, Spicer P, Mitchell CM, Novins DK, Manson SM, the AI-SUPERPFP Team. Racial disparities in alcohol use: Comparison of two American Indian reservation populations with national data. Am J Public Health 2003; 93(10): 1683–1685.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kunitz SJ, Gabriel KR, Levy JE, Henderson E, Lampert K, McCloskey J, Quintero G, Russell S, Vince A. Alcohol dependence and conduct disorder among Navajo Indians. J Stud Alcohol 1999; 60(2):159–167.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robin RW, Long JC, Rasmussen JK, Albaugh B, Goldman D. Relationship of binge drinking to alcohol dependence, other psychiatric disorders, and behavioral problems in an American Indian tribe. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1998; 22(2):518–523.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell CM, Beals J, Novins DK, Spicer P, the AI-SUPERPFP Team. Drug use among two American Indian populations: Prevalence of lifetime use and DSM-IV substance use disorders. Drug Alcohol Depend 2003; 69:29–41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nez Henderson P, Jacobsen C, Beals J, the AI-SUPERPFP Team. Correlates of cigarette smoking among selected Southwest and Northern Plains tribal groups: The AI-SUPERPFP study. Am J Public Health 2005; 95(5American Indian/Alaska Native Substance Abuse Research (Guest Editors: Kathleen Etz, Judith Arroyo, Aria Crump, Carmen Rosa, Marcia Scott)):867–872.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Falk DE, Yi HY, Hiller-Sturmhofel S. An epidemiologic analysis of co-occurring alcohol and tobacco use and disorders: Findings from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Alcohol Res Health 2006; 29(3):162–171.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• O’Connell JM, Novins DK, Beals J, Spicer P, the AI-SUPERPFP Team. Disparities in patterns of alcohol use among reservation-based and geographically dispersed American Indian populations. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2005; 29(1):107–116.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Compton WM, Thomas YF, Stinson FS, Grant BF. Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV Drug Abuse and Dependence in the United States: Results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2007; 64(5American Indian/Alaska Native Substance Abuse Research (Guest Editors: Kathleen Etz, Judith Arroyo, Aria Crump, Carmen Rosa, Marcia Scott)):566–576.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grant BF, Dawson DA, Stinson FS, Chou SP, Dufour MC, Pickering RP. The 12-month prevalence and trends in DSM-IV alcohol abuse and dependence: United States, 1991–1992 and 2001–2002. Drug Alcohol Depend 2004; 74(3):223–234.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beals J, Novins DK, Whitesell NR, Spicer P, Mitchell CM, Manson SM, American Indian Service Utilization, Psychiatric Epidemiology, Risk and Protective Factors Project Team. Prevalence of mental disorders and utilization of mental health services in two American Indian reservation populations: Mental health disparities in a national context. Am J Psychiatry 2005; 162(9):1723–1732.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trimble JE. Prolegomena for the connotation of construct use in the measurement of ethnic and racial identity. J Couns Psychol 2007; 54(3):247–258.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitesell NR, Beals J, Mitchell CM, Spicer P, Novins DK, Manson SM. Disparities in drug use and disorder: Comparison of two American Indian reservation communities and a national sample. Am J Orthopsychiatry 2007; 77(1):131–141.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beauvais F. An integrated model for prevention and treatment of drug abuse among American Indian youth. J Addict Dis 1992; 11:63–80.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mulligan CJ, Robin RW, Osier MV, Sambuughin N, Goldfarb LG, Kittles RA, Hesselbrock D, Goldman D, Long JC. Allelic variation at alcohol metabolism genes (ADH1B, ADH1C, ALDH2) and alcohol dependence in an American Indian population. Hum Genet 2003; 113(4):325–336.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Enoch MA, Waheed JF, Harris CR, Albaugh B, Goldman D. Sex differences in the influence of COMT Val158Met on alcoholism and smoking in Plains American Indians. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2006; 30(3):399–406.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehlers CL, Gilder DA, Gizer IR, Wilhelmsen KC. Heritability and a genome-wide linkage analysis of a Type II/B cluster construct for cannabis dependence in an American Indian community. Addict Biol 2009; 14(3):338–348.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehlers CL, Gizer IR, Gilder DA, Wilhelmsen KC. Linkage analyses of stimulant dependence, craving, and heavy use in American Indians. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2011; 156B(7):772–780.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wall TL, Garcia-Andrade C, Wong V, Lau P, Ehlers CL. Parental history of alcoholism and problem behaviors in Native-American children and adolescents. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2000; 24(1):30–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein RB, Dawson DA, Saha TD, Ruan WJ, Compton WM, Grant BF. Antisocial behavioral syndromes and DSM-IV alcohol use disorders: Results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2007; 31(5American Indian/Alaska Native Substance Abuse Research (Guest Editors: Kathleen Etz, Judith Arroyo, Aria Crump, Carmen Rosa, Marcia Scott)):814–828.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Novins DK, Beals J, Mitchell CM. Sequences of substance use among American Indian adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2001; 40(10):1168–1174.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Novins DK, Spicer P, Beals J, Manson SM. Preventing underage drinking in American Indian and Alaska Native communities: Contexts, epidemiology, and culture. In Reducing Underage Drinking: A Collective Responsibility. Bonnie RJ, O’Connell ME, eds. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2004, 678–696.
   Google Scholar
• Beauvais F. Comparison of drug use rates for reservation Indian, non-reservation Indian and Anglo youth. Am Indian Alsk Native Ment Health Res 1992; 5(1):13–31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marmot M. Social determinants of health inequalities. Lancet 2005; 365(9464):1099–1104.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marmot MG, Bell R, Marmot MG, Bell R. Action on health disparities in the United States: Commission on social determinants of health. J Am Med Assoc 2009; 301(11):1169–1171.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manson SM, Beals J, Klein S, Croy CD, the AI-SUPERPFP Team. The social epidemiology of trauma in two American Indian reservation populations. Am J Public Health 2005; 95(5American Indian/Alaska Native Substance Abuse Research (Guest Editors: Kathleen Etz, Judith Arroyo, Aria Crump, Carmen Rosa, Marcia Scott)):851–859.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robin RW, Chester B, Rasmussen JK, Jaranson JM, Goldman D. Prevalence and characteristics of trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in a southwestern American Indian community. Am J Psychiatry 1997; 154(11):1582–1588.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitesell NR, Beals J, Mitchell CM, Manson SM, Turner RJ. Childhood exposure to adversity and risk of substance-use disorder in two American Indian populations: The meditational role of early substance-use initiation. J Stud Alcohol Drugs 2009; 70(6):971–981.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beals J, Novins DK, Mitchell CM, Shore JH, Manson SM. Comorbidity between alcohol abuse/dependence and psychiatric disorders: Prevalence, treatment implications, and new directions for research among American Indian populations. In Alcohol Use Among American Indians and Alaska Natives: Multiple Perspectives on a Complex Problem. Mail P, Heurtin-Roberts S, Martin SE, Howard J, eds. Bethesda, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services, 2002, 371–410.
   Google Scholar
• Libby AM, Orton HD, Novins DK, Spicer P, Buchwald D, Beals J, Manson SM, AI-SUPERPFP Team. Childhood physical and sexual abuse and subsequent alcohol and drug use disorders in two American Indian tribes. J Stud Alcohol 2004; 65(1):74–83.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Novins DK, Boyd ML, Brotherton DT, Fickenscher A, Moore L, Spicer P. Walking On: Celebrating the journeys of traumatized Native American adolescents with substance use problems on the winding road to healing. J Psychoactive Drugs, 2012; 44(2):153–159.
   Google Scholar
• Mitchell CM, Beals J. The development of alcohol use and outcome expectancies among American Indian young adults: A growth mixture model. Addict Behav 2006; 31(1):1–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Markstrom CA, Whitesell NR, Galliher RV. Ethnic identity and mental health among American Indian and Alaska Native adolescents. In American Indian and Alaska Native Children and Mental Health: Development, Context, Prevention, and Treatment. Sarche MC, Spicer P, Farrell P, Fitzgerald HE, eds. Denver, CO: Praeger, 2011, 101–131.
   Google Scholar
• Oetting ER, Donnermeyer JF, Trimble JE, Beauvais F. Primary socialization theory: IV. Culture, ethnicity, and cultural identification. The links between culture and substance use. Subst Use Misuse 1998; 33(10):2075–2107.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Novins DK, Spicer P, Beals J, Manson SM. Preventing underage drinking in American Indian and Alaska Native communities: Contexts, epidemiology, and culture. In National Research Council and Institute of Medicine, Reducing Underage Drinking: A Collective Responsibility, Background Papers [CD ROM]. Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, ed. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2004, 678–696.
   Google Scholar
• Oetting ER, Deffenbacher JL, Donnermeyer JF. Primary socialization theory: II. The role played by personal traits in the etiology of drug use and deviance. Subst Use Misuse 1998; 33(6):1337–1366.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oetting ER, Donnermeyer JF. Primary socialization theory: I. The etiology of drug use and deviance. Subst Use Misuse 1998; 33(4):995–1026.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oetting ER, Donnermeyer JF, Deffenbacher JL. Primary socialization theory: III. The influence of the community on drug use and deviance. Subst. Use Misuse 1998; 33(8):1629–1665.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oetting ER. Primary socialization theory: V. Developmental stages, spirituality, government institutions, sensation seeking, and theoretical implications. Subst Use Misuse 1999; 34(7):947–982.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitbeck LB. Primary socialization theory: It all begins with the family. Subst Use Misuse 1999; 34(7):1025–1032.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood DS, Gruenewald PJ. Local alcohol prohibition, police presence and serious injury in isolated Alaska Native villages. Addiction 2006; 101(3):393–403.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hyland A, Higbee C, Li Q, Bauer JE, Giovino GA, Alford T, Cummings KM. Access to low-taxed cigarettes deters smoking cessation attempts. Am J Public Health 2005; 95(6):994–995.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roubideaux Y. Beyond Red Lake – The persistent crisis in American Indian health care. N Engl J Med 2005; 353(18):1881–1883.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zuckerman S, Haley J, Roubideaux Y, Lillie-Blanton M. Health service access, use, and insurance coverage among American Indians/Alaska Natives and Whites: What role does the Indian Health Service play? Am J Public Health 2004; 94(1):53–59.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Novins DK, Moore LA, Beals J, Kaufman CE. A sampling framework for conducting a national study of substance abuse treatment programs serving American Indian and Alaska Native communities. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse, under review.
   Google Scholar
• Manson SM. Behavioral health services for American Indians: Need, use, and barriers to effective care. In Promises to Keep: Public Health Policy for American Indians and Alaska Natives in the 21st Century. Dixon M, Roubideaux Y, eds. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association, 2001.
   Google Scholar
• Beals J, Novins DK, Spicer P, Whitesell NR, Mitchell CM, Manson SM, American Indian Service Utilization, Psychiatric Epidemiology, Risk, and Protective Factors Project Team. Help seeking for substance use problems in two American Indian reservation populations. Psychiatr Serv 2006; 57(4):512–520.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moy E, Dayton E, Clancy CM. Compiling the evidence: The National Healthcare Disparities Reports. Health Aff. (Millwood) 2005; 24(2):376–387.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Novins DK, Beals J, Moore L, Spicer P, Manson SM, the AI-SUPERPFP Team. Use of biomedical services and traditional healing options among American Indians: Sociodemographic correlates, spirituality, and ethnic identity. Med Care 2004; 42(7): 670–679.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brave Heart MYH. The historical trauma response among natives and its relationship with substance abuse: A Lakota illustration. J Psychoactive Drugs 2003; 35(1):7–13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duran E, Duran B. Native American Postcolonial Psychology. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1995.
   Google Scholar
• Gone JP. A community-based treatment for Native American historical trauma: Prospects for evidence-based practice. J Consult Clin Psychol 2009; 77(4):751–762.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walters KL, Simoni JM, Evans-Campbell T. Substance use among American Indians and Alaska Natives: Incorporating culture in an “indigenist” stress-coping paradigm. Public Health Rep 2002; 117(Suppl. 1):S104–S117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitbeck LB, Adams GW, Hoyt DR, Chen X. Conceptualizing and measuring historical trauma among American Indian people. Am J Community Psychol 2004; 33(3–4):119–130.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morrissette PJ, Naden M. An interactional view of traumatic stress among First Nations counselors. J Fam Psychother 1998; 9(3):43–60.
   Google Scholar
• Thomas LR, Donovan DM, Sigo RL, Austin L, Marlatt GA. The community pulling together: A Tribal Community-University partnership project to reduce substance abuse and promote good health in a reservation Tribal Community. J Ethn Subst Abuse 2009; 8(3):283.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Petraitis J, Flay BR, Miller TO. Reviewing theories of adolescent substance use: Organizing pieces of the puzzle. Psychol Bull 1995; 117(1):67–86.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stokols D. Toward a science of transdisciplinary action research. Am J Community Psychol 2006; 38:63–77.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar