Hyperthermia using nanoparticles – Promises and pitfalls

References

• Sapareto SA, Dewey WC. Thermal dose determination in cancer therapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1984;10:787–800
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bass H, Moore JL, Coakley WT. Lethality in mammalian cells due to hyperthermia under oxic and hypoxic conditions. Int J Radiat Biol Relat Stud Phys Chem Med 1978;33:57–67
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hildebrandt B, Wust P, Ahlers O, Dieing A, Sreenivasa G, Kerner T, et al. The cellular and molecular basis of hyperthermia. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol. 2002;43:33–56
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chatterjee DK, Wolfe T, Lee J, Brown AP, Singh PK, Bhattarai SR, et al. Convergence of nanotechnology with radiation therapy-insights and implications for clinical translation. Transl Cancer Res 2013;2:256–68
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoption Cann SA, van Netten JP, van Netten C. Dr William Coley and tumour regression: A place in history or in the future. Postgrad Med J 2003;79:672–80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Datta NR, Ordonez SG, Gaipl US, Paulides MM, Crezee H, Gellermann J, et al. Local hyperthermia combined with radiotherapy and/or chemotherapy: Recent advances and promises for the future. Cancer Treat Rev 2015;41:742–53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feldman AL, Libutti SK, Pingpank JF, Bartlett DL, Beresnev TH, Mavroukakis SM, et al. Analysis of factors associated with outcome in patients with malignant peritoneal mesothelioma undergoing surgical debulking and intraperitoneal chemotherapy. J Clin Oncol 2003;21:4560–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chatterjee DK, Diagaradjane P, Krishnan S. Nanoparticle-mediated hyperthermia in cancer therapy. Ther Deliv 2011;2:1001–14
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Krishnan S, Diagaradjane P, Cho SH. Nanoparticle-mediated thermal therapy: Evolving strategies for prostate cancer therapy. Int J Hyperthermia 2010;26:775–89
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maeda H. The enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect in tumor vasculature: The key role of tumor-selective macromolecular drug targeting. Adv Enzyme Regul 2001;41:189–207
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Maeda H. Tumor-selective delivery of macromolecular drugs via the EPR effect: Background and future prospects. Bioconjug Chem 2010;21:797–802
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choi HS, Liu W, Misra P, Tanaka E, Zimmer JP, Itty Ipe B, et al. Renal clearance of quantum dots. Nat Biotechnol 2007;25:1165–70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elsabahy M, Wooley KL. Design of polymeric nanoparticles for biomedical delivery applications. Chem Soc Rev. 2012;41(7): 2545–2561
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arvizo RR, Miranda OR, Moyano DF, Walden CA, Giri K, Bhattacharya R, Robertson JD, Rotello VM, Reid JM, Mukherjee P. Modulating pharmacokinetics, tumor uptake and biodistribution by engineered nanoparticles. PLoS One. 2011;6(9):e24374. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0024374. Epub 2011 Sep 13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blanco E, Shen H, Ferrari M. Principles of nanoparticle design for overcoming biological barriers to drug delivery. Nat Biotechnol. 2015;33(9):941–51. doi: 10.1038/nbt.3330
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xiao K, Li Y, Luo J, Lee JS, Xiao W, Gonik AM, Agarwal R, Lam KS. The effect of surface charge on in vivo biodistribution of PEG-oligocholic acid based micellar nanoparticles. Biomaterials. 2011;32(13): 3435–3446
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paciotti GF, Myer L, Weinreich D, Goia D, Pavel N, McLaughlin RE, Tamarkin L. Colloidal gold: a novel nanoparticle vector for tumor directed drug delivery. Drug Deliv. 2004;11(3):169–83
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris JM, Chess RB. Effect of pegylation on pharmaceuticals. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2003;2(3):214–21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klibanov AL, Maruyama K, Torchilin VP, Huang L. Amphipathic polyethyleneglycols effectively prolong the circulation time of liposomes. FEBS Lett. 1990;268(1):235–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cherukuri P, Glazer ES, Curleya SA. Targeted hyperthermia using metal nanoparticles. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2010;62:339–45
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang M, Thanou M. Targeting nanoparticles to cancer. Pharmacol Res 2010;62:90–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahay G, Alakhova DY, Kabanov AV. Endocytosis of nanomedicines. J Control Release 2010;145:182–95
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pryor PR, Luzio JP. Delivery of endocytosed membrane proteins to the lysosome. Biochim Biophys Acta 2009;1793:615–24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manke A, Wang L, Rojanasakul Y. Mechanisms of nanoparticle-induced oxidative stress and toxicity. Biomed Res Int 2013;2013:942916
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu F, Piett C, Farkas S, Qazzaz M, Syed NI. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) cause degeneration of cytoskeleton and disrupt synaptic machinery of cultured cortical neurons. Mol Brain 2013;6:29
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Panariti A, Miserocchi G, Rivolta I. The effect of nanoparticle uptake on cellular behavior: Disrupting or enabling functions? Nanotechnol Sci Appl 2012;5:87–100
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Singh N, Manshian B, Jenkins GJ, Griffiths SM, Williams PM, Maffeis TG, et al. NanoGenotoxicology: The DNA damaging potential of engineered nanomaterials. Biomaterials 2009;30:3891–914
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elsaesser A, Howard CV. Toxicology of nanoparticles. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2012;64:129–37
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dennis CL, Jackson AJ, Borchers JA, Ivkov R, Foreman AR, Hoopes PJ, et al. The influence of magnetic and physiological behaviour on the effectiveness of iron oxide nanoparticles for hyperthermia. J Phys D Appl Phys 2008;41;134020:1–5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cassim SM, Giustini AJ, Baker I, Hoopes PJ. Development of novel magnetic nanoparticles for hyperthermia cancer therapy. Proc SPIE Int Soc Opt Eng 2011;7901:790115
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Maier-Hauff K, Ulrich F, Nestler D, Niehoff H, Wust P, Thiesen B, et al. Efficacy and safety of intratumoral thermotherapy using magnetic iron-oxide nanoparticles combined with external beam radiotherapy on patients with recurrent glioblastoma multiforme. J Neuro-Oncol 2011;103:317–24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Landeghem FK, Maier-Hauff K, Jordan A, Hoffmann KT, Gneveckow U, Scholz R, et al. Post-mortem studies in glioblastoma patients treated with thermotherapy using magnetic nanoparticles. Biomaterials 2009;30:52–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang J, Chen Y, Chen B, Ding J, Xia G, Gao C, et al. Pharmacokinetic parameters and tissue distribution of magnetic Fe(3)O(4) nanoparticles in mice. Int J Nanomed 2010;5:861–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kruse AM, Meenach SA, Anderson KW, Hilt JZ. Synthesis and characterization of CREKA-conjugated iron oxide nanoparticles for hyperthermia applications. Acta Biomater 2014;10:2622–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Le Renard PE, Jordan O, Faes A, Petri-Fink A, Hofmann H, Rufenacht D, et al. The in vivo performance of magnetic particle-loaded injectable, in situ gelling, carriers for the delivery of local hyperthermia. Biomaterials 2010;31:691–705
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zheng SW, Huang M, Hong RY, Deng SM, Cheng LF, Gao B, et al. RGD-conjugated iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles for magnetic resonance imaging contrast enhancement and hyperthermia. J Biomater Appl 2014;28:1051–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drake P, Cho HJ, Shih PS, Kao CH, Lee KF, Kuo CH, et al. Gd-doped iron-oxide nanoparticles for tumour therapy via magnetic field hyperthermia. J Mater Chem 2007;17:4914–18
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fantechi E, Innocenti C, Zanardelli M, Fittipaldi M, Falvo E, Carbo M, et al. A smart platform for hyperthermia application in cancer treatment: Cobalt-doped ferrite nanoparticles mineralized in human ferritin cages. ACS Nano 2014;8:4705–19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee JH, Jang JT, Choi JS, Moon SH, Noh SH, Kim JW, et al. Exchange-coupled magnetic nanoparticles for efficient heat induction. Nat Nanotechnol 2011;6:418–22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordon AC, Lewandowski RJ, Salem R, Day DE, Omary RA, Larson AC. Localized hyperthermia with iron oxide-doped yttrium microparticles: Steps toward image-guided thermoradiotherapy in liver cancer. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2014;25:397–404
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kennedy LC, Bickford LR, Lewinski NA, Coughlin AJ, Hu Y, Day ES, et al. A new era for cancer treatment: Gold-nanoparticle-mediated thermal therapies. Small 2011;7:169–83
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Neal DP, Hirsch LR, Halas NJ, Payne JD, West JL. Photo-thermal tumor ablation in mice using near infrared-absorbing nanoparticles. Cancer Lett 2004;209:171–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gad SC, Sharp KL, Montgomery C, Payne JD, Goodrich GP. Evaluation of the toxicity of intravenous delivery of auroshell particles (gold-silica nanoshells). Int J Toxicol 2012;31:584–94
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng FY, Chen CT, Yeh CS. Comparative efficiencies of photothermal destruction of malignant cells using antibody-coated silica@Au nanoshells, hollow Au/Ag nanospheres and Au nanorods. Nanotechnology 2009;20:425104
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diagaradjane P, Shetty A, Wang JC, Elliott AM, Schwartz J, Shentu S, et al. Modulation of in vivo tumor radiation response via gold nanoshell-mediated vascular-focused hyperthermia: Characterizing an integrated antihypoxic and localized vascular disrupting targeting strategy. Nano Lett 2008;8:1492–500
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atkinson RL, Zhang M, Diagaradjane P, Peddibhotla S, Contreras A, Hilsenbeck SG, et al. Thermal enhancement with optically activated gold nanoshells sensitizes breast cancer stem cells to radiation therapy. Sci Transl Med 2010;2:55ra79
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu Y, Wang J, Li X, Liu Y, Dai L, Wu X, et al. Selective inhibition of breast cancer stem cells by gold nanorods mediated plasmonic hyperthermia. Biomaterials 2014;35:4667–77
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stern JM, Solomonov VV, Sazykina E, Schwartz JA, Gad SC, Goodrich GP. Initial evaluation of the safety of nanoshell-directed photothermal therapy in the treatment of prostate disease. Int J Toxicol 2015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mirska D, Schirmer K, Funari SS, Langner A, Dobner B, Brezesinski G. Biophysical and biochemical properties of a binary lipid mixture for DNA transfection. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2005;40:51–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• von Maltzahn G, Park JH, Agrawal A, Bandaru NK, Das SK, Sailor MJ, et al. Computationally guided photothermal tumor therapy using long-circulating gold nanorod antennas. Cancer Res 2009;69:3892–900
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niidome T, Akiyama Y, Yamagata M, Kawano T, Mori T, Niidome Y, et al. Poly(ethylene glycol)-modified gold nanorods as a photothermal nanodevice for hyperthermia. J Biomater Sci Polym Ed 2009;20:1203–15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jang B, Kim YS, Choi Y. Effects of gold nanorod concentration on the depth-related temperature increase during hyperthermic ablation. Small 2011;7:265–70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El-Sayed MA, Shabaka AA, El-Shabrawy OA, Yassin NA, Mahmoud SS, El-Shenawy SM, et al. Tissue distribution and efficacy of gold nanorods coupled with laser induced photoplasmonic therapy in ehrlich carcinoma solid tumor model. PLoS One 2013;8:e76207
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• You J, Zhang G, Li C. Exceptionally high payload of doxorubicin in hollow gold nanospheres for near-infrared light-triggered drug release. ACS Nano 2010;4:1033–41
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melancon MP, Lu W, Yang Z, Zhang R, Cheng Z, Elliot AM, et al. In vitro and in vivo targeting of hollow gold nanoshells directed at epidermal growth factor receptor for photothermal ablation therapy. Mol Cancer Ther 2008;7:1730–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu W, Xiong C, Zhang G, Huang Q, Zhang R, Zhang JZ, et al. Targeted photothermal ablation of murine melanomas with melanocyte-stimulating hormone analog-conjugated hollow gold nanospheres. Clin Cancer Res 2009;15:876–86
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodman AM, Cao Y, Urban C, Neumann O, Ayala-Orozco C, Knight MW, et al. The surprising in vivo instability of near-IR-absorbing hollow Au-Ag nanoshells. ACS Nano 2014;8:3222–31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thibodeaux CA, Kulkarni V, Chang WS, Neumann O, Cao Y, Brinson B, et al. Impurity-induced plasmon damping in individual cobalt-doped hollow Au nanoshells. J Phys Chem B 2014;118:14056–61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ayala-Orozco C, Urban C, Knight MW, Urban AS, Neumann O, Bishnoi SW, et al. Au Nanomatryoshkas as efficient near-infrared photothermal transducers for cancer treatment: Benchmarking against nanoshells. ACS Nano 2014;8:6372–81
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jin Y. Multifunctional compact hybrid Au nanoshells: A new generation of nanoplasmonic probes for biosensing, imaging, and controlled release. Acc Chem Res 2014;47:138–48
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang N, Wang H, Zhao J, Lui H, Korbelik M, Zeng H. Single-wall carbon nanotubes assisted photothermal cancer therapy: Animal study with a murine model of squamous cell carcinoma. Lasers Surg Med 2010;42:638–48
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burke A, Ding X, Singh R, Kraft RA, Levi-Polyachenko N, Rylander MN, et al. Long-term survival following a single treatment of kidney tumors with multiwalled carbon nanotubes and near-infrared radiation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2009;106:12897–902
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poland CA, Duffin R, Kinloch I, Maynard A, Wallace WA, Seaton A, et al. Carbon nanotubes introduced into the abdominal cavity of mice show asbestos-like pathogenicity in a pilot study. Nat Nanotechnol 2008;3:423–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang X, Peng X, Wang Y, Wang Y, Shin DM, El-Sayed MA, et al. A reexamination of active and passive tumor targeting by using rod-shaped gold nanocrystals and covalently conjugated peptide ligands. ACS Nano 2010;4:5887–96
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar S, Aaron J, Sokolov K. Directional conjugation of antibodies to nanoparticles for synthesis of multiplexed optical contrast agents with both delivery and targeting moieties. Nat Protoc 2008;3:314–20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burke AR, Singh RN, Carroll DL, Torti FM, Torti SV. targeting cancer stem cells with nanoparticle-enabled therapies. J Mol Biomark Diagn 2012;Suppl8: PMC3875221
   Google Scholar
• Burke AR, Singh RN, Carroll DL, Wood JC, D'Agostino RB Jr., Ajayan PM, et al. The resistance of breast cancer stem cells to conventional hyperthermia and their sensitivity to nanoparticle-mediated photothermal therapy. Biomaterials 2012;33:2961–70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johannsen M, Gneveckow U, Taymoorian K, Thiesen B, Waldofner N, Scholz R, et al. Morbidity and quality of life during thermotherapy using magnetic nanoparticles in locally recurrent prostate cancer: Results of a prospective phase I trial. Int J Hyperthermia 2007;23:315–23
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaman RT, Diagaradjane P, Wang J, Swartz J, Gill-Sharp K, Rajaram N, et al. In vivo detection of gold nanoshells in tumors using diffuse optical spectroscopy. IEEE J Sel Top Quant Elec 2007;13:1715–20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Puvanakrishnan P, Park J, Diagaradjane P, Schwartz JA, Coleman CL, Gill-Sharp KL, et al. Near-infrared narrow-band imaging of gold/silica nanoshells in tumors. J Biomed Opt 2009;14:024044
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De la Zerda A, Zavaleta C, Keren S, Vaithilingam S, Bodapati S, Liu Z, et al. Carbon nanotubes as photoacoustic molecular imaging agents in living mice. Nat Nanotechnol 2008;3:557–62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheong SK, Krishnan S, Cho SH. Modeling of plasmonic heating from individual gold nanoshells for near-infrared laser-induced thermal therapy. Med Phys 2009;36:4664–71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliott A, Schwartz J, Wang J, Shetty A, Hazle J, Stafford JR. Analytical solution to heat equation with magnetic resonance experimental verification for nanoshell enhanced thermal therapy. Lasers Surg Med 2008;40:660–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maier-Hauff K, Rothe R, Scholz R, Gneveckow U, Wust P, Thiesen B, et al. Intracranial thermotherapy using magnetic nanoparticles combined with external beam radiotherapy: Results of a feasibility study on patients with glioblastoma multiforme. J Neuro-Oncol 2007;81:53–60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee HJ, Liu Y, Zhao J, Zhou M, Bouchard RR, Mitcham T, et al. In vitro and in vivo mapping of drug release after laser ablation thermal therapy with doxorubicin-loaded hollow gold nanoshells using fluorescence and photoacoustic imaging. J Control Release 2013;172:152–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Visaria RK, Griffin RJ, Williams BW, Ebbini ES, Paciotti GF, Song CW, et al. Enhancement of tumor thermal therapy using gold nanoparticle-assisted tumor necrosis factor-alpha delivery. Mol Cancer Ther 2006;5:1014–20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huschka R, Barhoumi A, Liu Q, Roth JA, Ji L, Halas NJ. Gene silencing by gold nanoshell-mediated delivery and laser-triggered release of antisense oligonucleotide and siRNA. ACS Nano 2012;6:7681–91
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang X, Hu Q, Braun GB, Pallaoro A, Morales DP, Zasadzinski J, et al. Light-activated RNA interference in human embryonic stem cells. Biomaterials 2015;63:70–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zynda ER, Grimm MJ, Yuan M, Zhong L, Mace TA, Capitano M, et al. A role for the thermal environment in defining co-stimulation requirements for CD4(+) T cell activation. Cell Cycle 2015;14:2340–54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fujiwara N, Kobayashi K. Macrophages in inflammation. Curr drug targets Inflamm Allergy 2005;4:281–6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ostberg JR, Taylor SL, Baumann H, Repasky EA. Regulatory effects of fever-range whole-body hyperthermia on the LPS-induced acute inflammatory response. J Leukoc Biol 2000;68:815–20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steiner AA, Oliveira DL, Roberts JL, Petersen SR, Romanovsky AA. Nicotine administration and withdrawal affect survival in systemic inflammation models. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2008;105:1028–34
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soehnlein O, Lindbom L. Phagocyte partnership during the onset and resolution of inflammation. Nat Rev Immunol 2010;10:427–39
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pritchard MT, Wolf SF, Kraybill WF, Repasky EA. The anti-tumor effect of interleukin-12 is enhanced by mild (fever-range) thermal therapy. Immunol Invest 2005;34:361–80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Page DB, Postow MA, Callahan MK, Allison JP, Wolchok JD. Immune modulation in cancer with antibodies. Annu Rev Med 2014;65:185–202
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tong R, Langer R. Nanomedicines targeting the tumor microenvironment. Cancer J 2015;21:314–21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hernandez-Gil J, Cobaleda-Siles M, Zabaleta A, Salassa L, Calvo J, Mareque-Rivas JC. An iron oxide nanocarrier loaded with a Pt(IV) prodrug and immunostimulatory dsRNA for combining complementary cancer killing effects. Adv Healthc Mater 2015;4:1034–42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dumortier H, Lacotte S, Pastorin G, Marega R, Wu W, Bonifazi D, et al. Functionalized carbon nanotubes are non-cytotoxic and preserve the functionality of primary immune cells. Nano Lett 2006;6:1522–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dobrovolskaia MA, Neun BW, Man S, Ye X, Hansen M, Patri AK, et al. Protein corona composition does not accurately predict hematocompatibility of colloidal gold nanoparticles. Nanomedicine 2014;10:1453–63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crist RM, Grossman JH, Patri AK, Stern ST, Dobrovolskaia MA, Adiseshaiah PP, et al. Common pitfalls in nanotechnology: Lessons learned from NCI's Nanotechnology Characterization Laboratory. Integr Biol (Camb) 2013;5:66–73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Champion JA, Mitragotri S. Shape induced inhibition of phagocytosis of polymer particles. Pharm Res 2009;26:244–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diagaradjane P, Orenstein-Cardona JM, Colon-Casasnovas NE, Deorukhkar A, Shentu S, Kuno N, et al. Imaging epidermal growth factor receptor expression in vivo: pharmacokinetic and biodistribution characterization of a bioconjugated quantum dot nanoprobe. Clin Cancer Res 2008;14:731–41
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar