7,441
Views
69
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Reviews

Effort, symptom validity testing, performance validity testing and traumatic brain injury

Pages 1623-1638 | Received 04 Jan 2014, Accepted 20 Jul 2014, Published online: 12 Sep 2014

References

  • Coronado VG, McGuire LC, Sarmiento K, Bell J, Lionbarger MR, Jones CD, Geller AI, Khoury N, Xu L. Trends in Traumatic Brain Injury in the U.S. and the public health response: 1995–2009. Journal of Safety Research 2012;43:299–307
  • Sweet JJ, Meyer DG, Nelson NW, Moberg PJ. The TCN/AACN 2010 “salary survey”: Professional practices, beliefs, and incomes of U.S. neuropsychologists. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 2011;25:12–61
  • Sweet JJ, Goldman DJ, Guidotti Breting LM. Traumatic Brain Injury: Guidance in a forensic context from outcome, dose-response, and response bias research. Behavioral Sciences & The Law 2013;31:756–778
  • Dandachi-Fitzgerald B, Ponds RW, Merten T. Symptom validity and neuropsychological assessment: A survey of practices and beliefs of neuropsychologists in six European countries. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of The National Academy of Neuropsychologists 2013;28:771–783
  • Heilbronner RL, Sweet JJ, Morgan JE, Larrabee GJ, Millis SR. American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology Consensus Conference Statement on the neuropsychological assessment of effort, response bias, and malingering. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 2009;23:1093–1129
  • Carone DA, Bush SS. Mild traumatic brain injury: symptom validity assessment and malingering. NY: Springer; 2012
  • Bush SS, Ruff RM, Troster AI, Barth JT, Koffler SP, Pliskin NH, Reynolds CR, Silver CH. Symptom validity assessment: Practice issues and medical necessity NAN policy & planning committee. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists 2005;20:419–426
  • Sharland MJ, Gfeller JD. A survey of neuropsychologists' beliefs and practices with respect to the assessment of effort. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists 2007;22:213–223
  • Iverson GL, Franzen MD, McCracken LM. Application of a forced-choice memory procedure designed to detect experimental malingering. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists 1994;9:437–450
  • Bigler ED. Symptom validity testing, effort, and neuropsychological assessment. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 2012;18:632–640
  • Kirkwood MW, Kirk JW. The base rate of suboptimal effort in a pediatric mild TBI sample: Performance on the Medical Symptom Validity Test. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 2010;24:860–872
  • Willis PF, Farrer TJ, Bigler ED. Are effort measures sensitive to cognitive impairment? Military Medicine 2011;176:1426–1431
  • Locke DE, Smigielski JS, Powell MR, Stevens SR. Effort issues in post-acute outpatient acquired brain injury rehabilitation seekers. NeuroRehabilitation 2008;23:273–281
  • Dwyer CA. Cut scores and testing: Statistics, judgement, truth, and error. Psychological Assessment 1996;8:360–362
  • Nies KJ, Sweet JJ. Neuropsychological assessment and malingering: A critical review of past and present strategies. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists 1994;9:501–552
  • Van Dyke SA, Millis SR, Axelrod BN, Hanks RA. Assessing effort: Differentiating performance and symptom validity. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 2013;27:1234–1246
  • Bigler ED. What is it, how should it be measured? Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 2011;17:751–752
  • Lezak MD, Howieson DB, Bigler ED, Tranel D. Neuropsychological Assessment (V Edition). New York: Oxford University Press; 2012
  • Knight RT. Neuroscience. Neural networks debunk phrenology. Science 2007;316:1578–1579
  • Allen MD, Bigler ED, Larsen J, Goodrich-Hunsaker NJ, Hopkins RO. Functional neuroimaging evidence for high cognitive effort on the Word Memory Test in the absence of external incentives. Brain Injury 2007;21:1425–1428
  • Larsen JD, Allen MD, Bigler ED, Goodrich-Hunsaker NJ, Hopkins RO. Different patterns of cerebral activation in genuine and malingered cognitive effort during performance on the Word Memory Test. Brain Injury 2010;24:89–99
  • Browndyke JN, Paskavitz J, Sweet LH, Cohen RA, Tucker KA, Welsh-Bohmer KA, Burke JR, Schmechel DE. Neuroanatomical correlates of malingered memory impairment: Event-related fMRI of deception on a recognition memory task. Brain Injury 2008;22:481–489
  • Kireev M, Korotkov A, Medvedeva N, Medvedev S. Possible role of an error detection mechanism in brain processing of deception: PET-fMRI study. International Journal Of Psychophysiology: Official Journal of the International Organization of Psychophysiology 2013;90:291–299
  • Sun D, Lee TM, Chan CC. Unfolding the spatial and temporal neural processing of lying about face familiarity. Cerebral Cortex 2013
  • Association AP. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Fifth ed. 2013, Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing
  • Halligan PW, Bass C, Oakley DA. Malingering and illness deception. New York: Oxford University Press; 2003
  • McNally L, Jackson AL. Cooperation creates selection for tactical deception. Proceedings. Biological Sciences/The Royal Society 2013;280: no 1762. 20130699, doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.0699
  • Talwar V, Crossman A. From little white lies to filthy liars: The evolution of honesty and deception in young children. Advances in Child Development and Behavior 2011;40:139–179
  • Drane DL, Williamson DJ, Stroup ES, Holmes MD, Jung M, Koerner E, Chaytor N, Wilensky AJ, Miller JW. Cognitive impairment is not equal in patients with epileptic and psychogenic nonepileptic seizures. Epilepsia 2006;47:1879–1886
  • Sharpe M. Somatic symptoms: Beyond ‘medically unexplained'. The British Journal Of Psychiatry: The Journal of Mental Science 2013;203:320–321
  • Merckelbach H, Merten T. A note on cognitive dissonance and malingering. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 2012;26:1217–1229
  • Binder LM, Campbell KA. Medically unexplained symptoms and neuropsychological assessment. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 2004;26:369–392
  • Unverzagt FW, Gao S, Baiyewu O, Ogunniyi AO, Gureje O, Perkins A, Emsley CL, Dickens J, Evans R, Musick B, et al. Prevalence of cognitive impairment: Data from the Indianapolis Study of Health and Aging. Neurology 2001;57:1655–1662
  • Kemp S, Coughlan AK, Rowbottom C, Wilkinson K, Teggart V, Baker G. The base rate of effort test failure in patients with medically unexplained symptoms. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 2008;65:319–325
  • Silver JM. Effort, exaggeration and malingering after concussion. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 2012;83:836–841
  • Lewis JD, Wassermann EM, Chao W, Ramage AE, Robin DA, Clauw DJ. Central sensitization as a component of post-deployment syndrome. NeuroRehabilitation 2012;31:367–372
  • Overton S. Re: Neurology out-patients with symptoms unexplained by disease: Illness beliefs and financial benefits predict 1-year outcome. Psychological Medicine 2010;40:172–173
  • Sharpe M, Stone J, Hibberd C, Warlow C, Duncan R, Coleman R, Roberts R, Cull R, Pelosi A, Cavanagh J, et al. Neurology out-patients with symptoms unexplained by disease: Illness beliefs and financial benefits predict 1-year outcome. Psychological Medicine 2010;40:689–698
  • Carson A, Stone J, Hibberd C, Murray G, Duncan R, Coleman R, Warlow C, Roberts R, Pelosi A, Cavanagh J, et al. Disability, distress and unemployment in neurology outpatients with symptoms ‘unexplained by organic disease'. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, And Psychiatry 2011;82:810–813
  • Stone J, Carson A, Duncan R, Coleman R, Roberts R, Warlow C, Hibberd C, Murray G, Cull R, Pelosi A, et al. Symptoms ‘unexplained by organic disease' in 1144 new neurology out-patients: How often does the diagnosis change at follow-up? Brain: A Journal of Neurology 2009;132:2878–2888
  • Larrabee GJ. Performance validity and symptom validity in neuropsychological assessment. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 2012;18:625–630
  • Courville CB. Commotio Cerebri: cerebral concussion and the postconscious syndrome in their medical and legal aspects. Los Angeles, CA: San Lucas Press; 1953
  • Hiscock M, Hiscock CK. Refining the forced-choice method for the detection of malingering. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 1989;11:967–974
  • Slick D, Hopp G, Strauss E, Hunter M, Pinch D. Detecting dissimulation: Profiles of simulated malingerers, traumatic brain-injury patients, and normal controls on a revised version of Hiscock and Hiscock's Forced-Choice Memory Test. Journal of Clinical And Experimental Neuropsychology 1994;16:472–481
  • Binder LM. Forced-choice testing provides evidence of malingering. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 1992;73:377–380
  • Miller H. Accident neurosis. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 1962;55:509–511
  • Larson RW, Rusk N. Intrinsic motivation and positive development. Advances in Child Development and Behavior 2011;41:89–130
  • Anastasi A, Urbina S. Psychological testing. 7th ed. New York: Pearson; 1997
  • McCormick CL, Yoash-Gantz RE, McDonald SD, Campbell TC, Tupler LA. Performance on the Green Word Memory Test following Operation Enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom-Era Military Service: Test failure is related to evaluation context. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: the Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists 2013;28:808–823
  • Dikmen SS, Heaton RK, Grant I, Temkin NR. Test-retest reliability and practice effects of expanded Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 1999;5:346–356
  • Promberger M, Marteau TM. When do financial incentives reduce intrinsic motivation? comparing behaviors studied in psychological and economic literatures. Health Psychology: Official Journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association 2013;32:950–957
  • Thoman DB, Smith JL, Brown ER, Chase J, Lee JY. Beyond performance: A motivational experiences model of stereotype threat. Educational Psychology Review 2013;25:211–243
  • Suhr J, Hammers D. Who fails the Iowa Gambling Test (IGT)? Personality, neuropsychological, and near-infrared spectroscopy findings in healthy young controls. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: the Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists 2010;25:293–302
  • Trontel HG, Hall S, Ashendorf L, O'Connor MK. Impact of diagnosis threat on academic self-efficacy in mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 2013;35:960–970
  • Kurniawan IT, Guitart-Masip M, Dayan P, Dolan RJ. Effort and valuation in the brain: The effects of anticipation and execution. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience 2013;33:6160–6169
  • Croxson PL, Walton ME, O'Reilly JX, Behrens TE, Rushworth MF. Effort-based cost-benefit valuation and the human brain. The Journal Of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience 2009;29:4531–4541
  • Hellman SG, Kern RS, Neilson LM, Green MF. Monetary reinforcement and Wisconsin Card Sorting performance in schizophrenia: Why show me the money? Schizophrenia Research 1998;34:67–75
  • Chafetz MD, Biondolillo A. Validity issues in Atkins death cases. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 2012;26:1358–1376
  • Carone DA. Young child with severe brain volume loss easily passes the Word Memory Test and Medical Symptom Validity Test: Implications for Mild TBI. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 2013;28:146–162
  • McBride WF 3rd, Crighton AH, Wygant DB, Granacher Jr RP. It's Not All in Your Head (or at Least Your Brain): Association of traumatic brain lesion presence and location with performance on measures of response bias in forensic evaluation. Behavioral Sciences & the Law 2013;31:779–788
  • Lippa SM, Pastorek NJ, Romesser J, Linck J, Sim AH, Wisdom NM, Miller BI. Ecological validity of performance validity testing. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists 2014;29:236–244
  • Loughan AR, Perna R. Performance and specificity rates in the test of memory malingering: An investigation into pediatric clinical populations. Applied Neuropsychology Child 2014;3:26–30
  • Williamson DJ, Holsman M, Chaytor N, Miller JW, Drane DL. Abuse, not financial incentive, predicts non-credible cognitive performance in patients with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 2012;26:588–598
  • Stenclik JH, Miele AS, Silk-Eglit G, Lynch JK, McCaffrey RJ. Can the sensitivity and specificity of the TOMM be increased with differential Cutoff Scores? Applied Neuropsychology. Adult 2013 March 26 [Epub ahead of print] PMID:23430574
  • Hilsabeck RC, Gordon SN, Hietpas-Wilson T, Zartman AL. Use of Trial 1 of the Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM) as a screening measure of effort: Suggested discontinuation rules. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 2011;25:1228–1238
  • Suchy Y, Chelune G, Franchow EI, Thorgusen SR. Confronting patients about insufficient effort: The impact on subsequent symptom validity and memory performance. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 2012;26:1296–1311
  • Keary TA, Frazier TW, Belzile CJ, Chapin JS, Naugle RI, Najm IM, Busch RM. Working memory and intelligence are associated with victoria symptom validity test hard item performance in patients with intractable epilepsy. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 2013;19:314–323
  • Bigler ED. Neuroimaging biomarkers in mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI). Neuropsychology Review 2013;23:169–209
  • Perna R, Loughan AR. The influence of effort on neuropsychological performance in children: Is performance on the TOMM indicative of neuropsychological ability? Applied Neuropsychology. Child 2014;3:31–37
  • Kirkwood MW, Peterson RL, Connery AK, Baker DA, Grubenhoff JA. Postconcussive symptom exaggeration after pediatric mild traumatic brain injury. Pediatrics 2014;133:643–650
  • Kirk JW, Hutaff-Lee CF, Connery AK, Baker DA, Kirkwood MW. The relationship between the self-report BASC-2 validity indicators and performance validity test failure after pediatric mild traumatic brain injury. Assessment 2014; Feb 14 [Epub ahead of print], doi: 10.1177/1073191114520626
  • Green CM, Kirk JW, Connery AK, Baker DA, Kirkwood MW. The use of the Rey 15-Item Test and recognition trial to evaluate noncredible effort after pediatric mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 2014;36:261–267
  • Festinger DS, Marlowe DB, Croft JR, Dugosh KL, Arabia PL, Benasutti KM. Monetary incentives improve recall of research consent information: It pays to remember. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 2009;17:99–104
  • Spaniol J, Schain C, Bowen HJ. Reward-enhanced memory in younger and older adults. The Journals Of Gerontology: Series B, Psychological Sciences And Social Sciences 2013;69:730–740
  • Apitz T, Bunzeck N. Reward modulates the neural dynamics of early visual category processing. NeuroImage 2012;63:1614–1622
  • McCauley SR, Pedroza C, Chapman SB, Cook LG, Vasquez AC, Levin HS. Monetary incentive effects on event-based prospective memory three months after traumatic brain injury in children. Journal of Clinical And Experimental Neuropsychology 2011;33:639–646
  • McCauley SR, Wilde EA, Bigler ED, Chu Z, Yallampalli R, Oni MB, Wu TC, Ramos MA, Pedroza C, Vasquez AC, et al. Diffusion tensor imaging of incentive effects in prospective memory after pediatric traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurotrauma 2011;28:503–516
  • Markou A, Salamone JD, Bussey TJ, Mar AC, Brunner D, Gilmour G, Balsam P. Measuring reinforcement learning and motivation constructs in experimental animals: Relevance to the negative symptoms of schizophrenia. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 2013;37:2149–2165
  • Gorissen M, Sanz JC, Schmand B. Effort and cognition in schizophrenia patients. Schizophrenia Research 2005;78:199–208
  • Dickson H, Laurens KR, Cullen AE, Hodgins S. Meta-analyses of cognitive and motor function in youth aged 16 years and younger who subsequently develop schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine 2012;42:743–755
  • Raffard S, Capdevielle D, Boulenger JP, Gely-Nargeot MC, Bayard S. Can individuals with schizophrenia be instructed to deliberately feign memory deficits? Cognitive Neuropsychiatry 2014;19:414–426
  • Hunt S, Root JC, Bascetta BL. Effort testing in schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder: Validity indicator profile and test of memory malingering performance characteristics. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists 2014;29:164–172
  • Choi KH, Saperstein AM, Medalia A. The relationship of trait to state motivation: The role of self-competency beliefs. Schizophrenia Research 2012;139:73–77
  • Rushworth MF. Intention, choice, and the medial frontal cortex. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2008;1124:181–207
  • Bernstein IS. The study of things I have never seen. American Journal of Primatology 2003;60:77–84
  • Mellers BA, Schwartz A, Cooke AD. Judgment and decision making. Annual Review of Psychology 1998;49:447–477
  • Frazier TW, Youngstrom EA, Naugle RI, Haggerty KA, Busch RM. The latent structure of cognitive symptom exaggeration on the Victoria Symptom Validity Test. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists 2007;22:197–211
  • Haggerty KA, Frazier TW, Busch RM, Naugle RI. Relationships among victoria symptom validity test indices and personality assessment inventory validity scales in a large clinical sample. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 2007;21:917–928
  • ArmisteadJehle P, Buican B. Evaluation context and Symptom Validity Test performances in a U.S. Military sample. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists 2012;27:828–839
  • Armistead-Jehle P. Symptom validity test performance in U.S. veterans referred for evaluation of mild TBI. Applied Neuropsychology 2010;17:52–59
  • Stulemeijer M, Andriessen TM, Brauer JM, Vos PE, Van Der Werf S. Cognitive performance after mild traumatic brain injury: The impact of poor effort on test results and its relation to distress, personality and litigation. Brain Injury 2007;21:309–318
  • Frederick RI. A review of Rey’s Strategies for detecting malingered neuropsychological impairment. Journal of Forensic Neuropsychology 2002;2:1–25
  • Rudman N, Oyebode JR, Jones CA, Bentham P. An investigation into the validity of effort tests in a working age dementia population. Aging & Mental Health 2011;15:47–57
  • Trinidad KJ, Schmidt JD, Register-Mihalik JK, Groff D, Goto S, Guskiewicz KM. Predicting clinical concussion measures at baseline based on motivation and academic profile. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine: Official Journal of the Canadian Academy of Sport Medicine 2013;23:462–469
  • Schaeffer KW, Parsons OA, Errico AL. Performance deficits on tests of problem solving in alcoholics: Cognitive or motivational impairment? Journal of Substance Abuse 1989;1:381–392
  • Binder LM, Pankratz L. Neuropsychological evidence of a factitious memory complaint. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 1987;9:167–171
  • Pankratz L, Binder LM, Wilcox LM. Evaluation of an exaggerated somatosensory deficit with symptom validity testing. Archives of Neurology 1987;44:798
  • Pankratz L. Symptom validity testing and symptom retraining: Procedures for the assessment and treatment of functional sensory deficits. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1979;47:409–410
  • Cliffe MJ. Symptom-validity testing of feigned sensory or memory deficits: A further elaboration for subjects who understand the rationale. The British Journal of Clinical Psychology/the British Psychological Society 1992;31:207–209
  • Smith CN, Frascino JC, Kripke DL, McHugh PR, Treisman GJ, Squire LR. Losing memories overnight: A unique form of human amnesia. Neuropsychologia 2010;48:2833–2840
  • Eriksen TE, Risor MB. What is called symptom? Medicine, Health Care, and Philosophy 2013;17:89–102
  • Johnson-Greene D, Brooks L, Ference T. Relationship between performance validity testing, disability status, and somatic complaints in patients with fibromyalgia. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 2013;27:148–158
  • McGrath RE, et al. Evidence for response bias as a source of error variance in applied assessment. Psychological Bulletin 2010;136:450–470
  • Zhu B, Chen C, Loftus EF, Lin C, Dong Q. The relationship between DRM and misinformation false memories. Memory & Cognition 2013;41:832–838
  • Wolf DH, Gerraty R, Satterthwaite TD, Loughead J, Campellone T, Elliott MA, Turetsky BI, Gur RC, Gur RE. Striatal intrinsic reinforcement signals during recognition memory: Relationship to response bias and dysregulation in schizophrenia. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience 2011;5:81
  • Batt,K. Shores EA, Chekaluk E. The effect of distraction on the Word Memory Test and Test of Memory Malingering performance in patients with a severe brain injury. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 2008;14:1074–1080
  • Bigler ED, Brooks M. Traumatic brain injury and forensic neuropsychology. The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation 2009;24:76–87
  • Merten T, Merckelbach H. Symptom Validity Testing in Somatoform and Dissociative Disorders: A critical review. Psychological Injury and Law 2013;6:122–137
  • Aurbach R. Suppose hippocrates had been a lawyer: A conceptual model of harm to litigants: Part 1. Psychological Injury and Law 2013;6:215–227
  • Aurbach R. Suppose hippocrates had been a lawyer: A conceptual model of harm to litigants; part 2. Psychological Injury and Law 2013;6:228–237
  • Geier C, Luna B. The maturation of incentive processing and cognitive control. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 2009;93:212–221
  • Lynch WJ. Determination of effort level, exaggeration, and malingering in neurocognitive assessment. The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation 2004;19:277–283
  • McCarter RJ, Walton NH, Brooks DN, Powell GE. Effort testing in contemporary UK neuropsychological practice. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 2009;23:1050–1066
  • Boone KB. The need for continuous and comprehensive sampling of effort/response bias during neuropsychological examinations. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 2009;23:729–741
  • Green P. The pervasive influence of effort on neuropsychological tests. Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America 2007;18:43–68, vi
  • Williams JM. The malingering factor. Archives of clinical neuropsychology: the Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists 2011;26:280–285
  • Ruff CC. Sensory processing: Who's in (top-down) control? Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2013;1296:88–107
  • Vossel S, Weidner R, Driver J, Friston KJ, Fink GR. Deconstructing the architecture of dorsal and ventral attention systems with dynamic causal modeling. The Journal of Neuroscience: the Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience 2012;32:10637–10648
  • Larson EB, Kondiles BR, Starr CR, Zollman FS. Postconcussive complaints, cognition, symptom attribution and effort among veterans. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 2013;19:88–95
  • Araujo GC, Antonini TN, Monahan K, Gelfius C, Klamar K, Potts M, Yeates KO, Bodin D. The relationship between suboptimal effort and post-concussion symptoms in children and adolescents with mild traumatic brain injury. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 2014;28:786–801
  • Van Dyke SA, Millis SR, Axelrod BN, Hanks RA. Assessing effort: Differentiating performance and symptom validity. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 2013;27:1234–1246
  • Boll TJ, Barth J. Mild head injury. Psychiatric Developments 1983;1:263–275
  • Gulbrandsen GB. Neuropsychological sequelae of light head injuries in older children 6 months after trauma. Journal of Clinical Neuropsychology 1984;6:257–268
  • Le Bouc R, Pessiglione M. Imaging social motivation: Distinct brain mechanisms drive effort production during collaboration versus competition. The Journal of Neuroscience: the Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience 2013;33:15894–15902
  • Barch DM, Dowd EC. Goal representations and motivational drive in schizophrenia: The role of prefrontal-striatal interactions. Schizophrenia Bulletin 2010;36:919–934
  • Hellyer PJ, Leech R, Ham TE, Bonnelle V, Sharp DJ. Individual prediction of white matter injury following traumatic brain injury. Annals of Neurology 2012;73:489–499
  • Kim N, Branch CA, Kim M, Lipton ML. Whole brain approaches for identification of microstructural abnormalities in individual patients: Comparison of techniques applied to mild traumatic brain injury. PloS One 2013;8:e59382
  • Shenton ME, Hamoda HM, Schneiderman JS, Bouix S, Pasternak O, Rathi Y, Vu MA, Purohit MP, Helmer K, Koerte I, et al. A review of magnetic resonance imaging and diffusion tensor imaging findings in mild traumatic brain injury. Brain Imaging and Behavior 2012;6:137–192
  • Hetherington HP, Hamid H, Kulas J, Ling G, Bandak F, de Lanerolle NC, Pan JW. MRSI of the medial temporal lobe at 7 T in explosive blast mild traumatic brain injury. Magnetic Resonance in Medicine: Official Journal of the Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine/Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine 2014;71:1358–1367
  • Kirov II, Tal A, Babb JS, Lui YW, Grossman RI, Gonen O. Diffuse axonal injury in mild traumatic brain injury: A 3D multivoxel proton MR spectroscopy study. Journal of Neurology 2013;260:242–252
  • Dean PJ, Otaduy MC, Harris LM, McNamara A, Seiss E, Sterr A. Monitoring long-term effects of mild traumatic brain injury with magnetic resonance spectroscopy: A pilot study. Neuroreport 2013;24:677–681
  • Rienstra A, Groot PF, Spaan PE, Majoie CB, Nederveen AJ, Walstra GJ, de Jonghe JF, van Gool WA, Olabarriaga SD, Korkhov VV, Schmand B. Symptom validity testing in memory clinics: Hippocampal-memory associations and relevance for diagnosing mild cognitive impairment. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 2013;35:59–70
  • Goodrich-Hunsaker NJ, Hopkins RO. Word memory test performance in amnesic patients with hippocampal damage. Neuropsychology 2009;23:529–534
  • Perlstein WM, Cole MA, Demery JA, Seignourel PJ, Dixit NK, Larson MJ, Briggs RW. Parametric manipulation of working memory load in traumatic brain injury: Behavioral and neural correlates. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 2004;10:724–741
  • McDonald BC, Saykin AJ, McAllister TW. Functional MRI of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI): Progress and perspectives from the first decade of studies. Brain Imaging and Behavior 2012;6:193–207
  • Dean PJ, Sterr A. Long-term effects of mild traumatic brain injury on cognitive performance. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 2013;7:30
  • Callicott JH, Mattay VS, Bertolino A, Finn K, Coppola R, Frank JA, Goldberg TE, Weinberger DR. Physiological characteristics of capacity constraints in working memory as revealed by functional MRI. Cerebral Cortex 1999;9:20–26
  • Johnson B, Zhang K, Gay M, Horovitz S, Hallett M, Sebastianelli W, Slobounov S. Alteration of brain default network in subacute phase of injury in concussed individuals: Resting-state fMRI study. NeuroImage 2012;59:511–518
  • Chen CJ, Wu CH, Liao YP, Hsu HL, Tseng YC, Liu HL, Chiu WT. Working memory in patients with mild traumatic brain injury: Functional MR imaging analysis. Radiology 2012;264:844–851
  • McAllister TW, Flashman LA, McDonald BC, Saykin AJ, . Mechanisms of working memory dysfunction after mild and moderate TBI: Evidence from functional MRI and neurogenetics. Journal of Neurotrauma 2006;23:1450–1467
  • Zhou Y, Milham MP, Lui YW, Miles L, Reaume J, Sodickson DK, Grossman RI, Ge Y. Default-mode network disruption in mild traumatic brain injury. Radiology 2012;265:882–892
  • Sonuga-Barke EJ, Fairchild G. Neuroeconomics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Differential influences of medial, dorsal, and ventral prefrontal brain networks on suboptimal decision making? Biological Psychiatry 2012;72:126–133
  • Liston C, Malter Cohen M, Teslovich T, Levenson D, Casey BJ. Atypical prefrontal connectivity in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Pathway to disease or pathological end point? Biological Psychiatry 2011;69:1168–1177
  • Bush G. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and attention networks. Neuropsychopharmacology: Official Publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology 2010;35:278–300
  • Broyd SJ, Demanuele C, Debener S, Helps SK, James CJ, Sonuga-Barke EJ. Default-mode brain dysfunction in mental disorders: A systematic review. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 2009;33:279–296
  • Dovis S, Van der Oord S, Wiers RW, Prins PJ. What part of working memory is not working in ADHD? Short-term memory, the central executive and effects of reinforcement. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 2013;41:901–917
  • Marshall P, Schroeder R, O'Brien J, Fischer R, Ries A, Blesi B, Barker J. Effectiveness of symptom validity measures in identifying cognitive and behavioral symptom exaggeration in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 2010;24:1204–1237
  • Larson MJ, Fair JE, Farrer TJ, Perlstein WM. Predictors of performance monitoring abilities following traumatic brain injury: The influence of negative affect and cognitive sequelae. International Journal of Psychophysiology: Official Journal of the International Organization of Psychophysiology 2011;82:61–68
  • Larson MJ, Farrer TJ, Clayson PE. Cognitive control in mild traumatic brain injury: Conflict monitoring and conflict adaptation. International Journal of Psychophysiology: Official Journal of the International Organization of Psychophysiology 2011;82:69–78
  • Carone DA, Green P, Drane DL. Word Memory Test Profiles in two cases with surgical removal of the left anterior hippocampus and parahippocampal gyrus. Applied Neuropsychology. Adult 2014;21:155–160
  • Dean AC, Victor TL, Boone KB, Arnold G. The relationship of IQ to effort test performance. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 2008;22:705–722
  • Merten T, Bossink L, Schmand B. On the limits of effort testing: Symptom validity tests and severity of neurocognitive symptoms in nonlitigant patients. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 2007;29:308–318
  • Hunt S, Root JC, Bascetta BL. Effort testing in schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder: Validity indicator profile and test of memory malingering performance characteristics. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 2014;29:164–172
  • Strutt AM, Scott BM, Lozano VJ, Tieu PG, Peery S. Assessing sub-optimal performance with the Test of Memory Malingering in Spanish speaking patients with TBI. Brain Injury 2012;26:853–863
  • Sieck BC, et al. Symptom validity test performance in the Huntington Disease Clinic. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists 2013;28:135–143
  • Green P, Montijo J, Brockhaus R. High specificity of the Word Memory Test and Medical Symptom Validity Test in groups with severe verbal memory impairment. Applied Neuropsychology 2011;18:86–94
  • Donders J, Strong CA. Does Green's Word Memory Test really measure memory? Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 2013;35: 827–834
  • Sirri L, Fava GA, Sonino N. The unifying concept of illness behavior. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 2013;82:74–81
  • Ensalada LH. The importance of illness behavior in disability management. Occupational Medicine 2000;15:739–754, iv
  • Prior KN, Bond MJ. Somatic symptom disorders and illness behaviour: Current perspectives. International Review of Psychiatry 2013;25:5–18
  • Poon DC, Ho YS, Chiu K, Chang RC. Cytokines: How important are they in mediating sickness? Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 2013;37:1–10
  • Hines DJ, Choi HB, Hines RM, Phillips AG, MacVicar BA. Prevention of LPS-induced microglia activation, cytokine production and sickness behavior with TLR4 receptor interfering peptides. PloS One 2013;8:e60388
  • Bigler ED. Neuroinflammation and the dynamic lesion in traumatic brain injury. Brain 2013;136:9–11
  • Irwin MR. Inflammation at the intersection of behavior and somatic symptoms. The Psychiatric Clinics of North America 2011;34:605–620
  • Aybek S, Nicholson TR, Zelaya F, O’Daly OG, Craig TJ, David AS, Kanaan RA. Neural correlates of recall of life events in conversion disorder. JAMA Psychiatry 2014;71:52–60
  • Nicholson TR, Aybek S, Kempton MJ, Daly EM, Murphy DG, David AS, Kanaan RA. A structural MRI study of motor conversion disorder: Evidence of reduction in thalamic volume. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 2014;85:227–229
  • Dickson A, Toft A, O'Carroll RE. Neuropsychological functioning, illness perception, mood and quality of life in chronic fatigue syndrome, autoimmune thyroid disease and healthy participants. Psychological Medicine 2009;39:1567–1576
  • Swain MG. Fatigue in chronic disease. Clinical Science 2000;99:1–8
  • Anisman H, Kokkinidis L, Merali Z. Further evidence for the depressive effects of cytokines: Anhedonia and neurochemical changes. Brain, Behavior and Immunity 2002;16:544–556
  • Maes M, et al. Depression and sickness behavior are Janus-faced responses to shared inflammatory pathways. BMC Medicine 2012;10:66
  • Levens SM, Muhtadie L, Gotlib IH. Rumination and impaired resource allocation in depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2009;118:757–766
  • Nakagawa S, Sugiura M, Akitsuki Y, Hosseini SM, Kotozaki Y, Miyauchi CM, Yomogida Y, Yokoyama R, Takeuchi H, Kawashima R. Compensatory effort parallels midbrain deactivation during mental fatigue: An fMRI study. PloS One 2013;8:e56606
  • Otto T, Zijlstra FR, Goebel R. Neural correlates of mental effort evaluation– involvement of structures related to self-awareness. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 2014;9:307–315
  • Reas ET, Brewer JB. Effortful retrieval reduces hippocampal activity and impairs incidental encoding. Hippocampus 2013;23:367–379
  • Dobryakova E, DeLuca J, Genova HM, Wylie GR. Neural correlates of cognitive fatigue: Cortico-striatal circuitry and effort-reward imbalance. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 2013;19:849–853
  • Foland-Ross LC, Gotlib IH. Cognitive and neural aspects of information processing in major depressive disorder: An integrative perspective. Frontiers in Psychology 2012;3:489 . [Prepublished online] doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00489
  • Hester R, Luijten M. Neural correlates of attentional bias in addiction. CNS Spectrums 2014;19:231–238
  • Mohlman J, Price RB, Vietri J. Attentional bias in older adults: Effects of generalized anxiety disorder and cognitive behavior therapy. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2013;27:585–591
  • Berthelson L, Mulchan SS, Odland AP, Miller LJ, Mittenberg W. False positive diagnosis of malingering due to the use of multiple effort tests. Brain Injury 2013;27:909–916
  • Larrabee GJ. False-positive rates associated with the use of Multiple Performance and Symptom Validity Tests. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists 2014;29:364–373
  • Meyers JE, Miller RM, Thompson LM, Scalese AM, Allred BC, Rupp ZW, Dupaix ZP, Junghyun Lee A. Using likelihood ratios to detect invalid performance with performance validity measures. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists 2014;29:224–35