959
Views
12
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
REVIEW ARTICLE

Postmenopausal hormone therapy and coronary heart disease in early postmenopausal women

&
Pages 1-7 | Received 20 Dec 2012, Accepted 10 Oct 2013, Published online: 25 Nov 2013

References

  • Global atlas on cardiovascular disease prevention and control. Available at: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2011/9789241564373_eng.pdf.
  • European cardiovascular disease statistics, 3rd edition, 2008. Available at: http://www.ehnheart.org/cvd-statistics.html.
  • Collins P, Rosano G, Casey C, Daly C, Gambacciani M, Hadji P, et al. Management of cardiovascular risk in the peri-menopausal woman: a consensus statement of European cardiologists and gynaecologists. Eur Heart J. 2007;28:2028–40.
  • van der Schouw YT. Incidence and mortality of cardiovascular disease in postmenopausal women world-wide and relevance for preventive strategies. Climacteric. 2009;12(Suppl 1):1–5.
  • Canto JG, Rogers WJ, Goldberg RJ, Peterson ED, Wenger NK, Vaccarino V, et al. Association of age and sex with myocardial infarction symptom presentation and in-hospital mortality. JAMA. 2012;307:813–22.
  • Lloyd-Jones DM, Leip EP, Larson MG, D’Agostino RB, Beiser A, Wilson PW, et al. Prediction of lifetime risk for cardiovascular disease by risk factor burden at 50 years of age. Circulation. 2006;113:791–8.
  • Berry JD, Dyer A, Cai X, Garside DB, Ning H, Thomas A, et al. Lifetime risks of cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 2012;366:321–9.
  • Roger VL, Go AS, Lloyd-Jones DM, Adams RJ, Berry JD, Brown TM, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics--2011 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2011;123:e18–209.
  • Lindquist R, Boucher JL, Grey EZ, Cairns B, Bobra S, Windenburg D, et al. Eliminating untimely deaths of women from heart disease: highlights from the Minnesota Women's Heart Summit. Am Heart J. 2012;163:39,48.e1.
  • Towfighi A, Zheng L, Ovbiagele B. Sex-specific trends in midlife coronary heart disease risk and prevalence. Arch Intern Med. 2009; 169:1762–6.
  • Kanter R, Caballero B. Global gender disparities in obesity: a review. Adv Nutr. 2012;3:491–8.
  • Wilson PW, D’Agostino RB, Sullivan L, Parise H, Kannel WB. Overweight and obesity as determinants of cardiovascular risk: the Framingham experience. Arch Intern Med. 2002;162:1867–72.
  • Mikkola TS, Clarkson TB. Estrogen replacement therapy, atherosclerosis, and vascular function. Cardiovasc Res. 2002;53:605–19.
  • Vitale C, Mendelsohn ME, Rosano GM. Gender differences in the cardiovascular effect of sex hormones. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2009;6:532–42.
  • Grady D, Rubin SM, Petitti DB, Fox CS, Black D, Ettinger B, et al. Hormone therapy to prevent disease and prolong life in postmenopausal women. Ann Intern Med. 1992;117:1016–37.
  • Grodstein F, Stampfer M. The epidemiology of coronary heart disease and estrogen replacement in postmenopausal women. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 1995;38:199–210.
  • Grodstein F, Manson JE, Colditz GA, Willett WC, Speizer FE, Stampfer MJ. A prospective, observational study of postmenopausal hormone therapy and primary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Ann Intern Med. 2000;133:933–41.
  • Hulley S, Grady D, Bush T, Furberg C, Herrington D, Riggs B, et al. Randomized trial of estrogen plus progestin for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in postmenopausal women. Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study (HERS) research group. JAMA. 1998;280:605–13.
  • Rossouw JE, Anderson GL, Prentice RL, LaCroix AZ, Kooperberg C, Stefanick ML, et al. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results from the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2002;288:321–33.
  • Sare GM, Gray LJ, Bath PM. Association between hormone replacement therapy and subsequent arterial and venous vascular events: a meta-analysis. Eur Heart J. 2008;29:2031–41.
  • Stram DO, Liu Y, Henderson KD, Sullivan-Halley J, Luo J, Saxena T, et al. Age-specific effects of hormone therapy use on overall mortality and ischemic heart disease mortality among women in the California teachers study. Menopause. 2011;18:253–61.
  • Grodstein F, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, Colditz GA, Willett WC, Rosner B, et al. Postmenopausal estrogen and progestin use and the risk of cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:453–61.
  • The Women's Health Initiative Study Group. Design of the Women's Health Initiative clinical trial and observational study. Control Clin Trials. 1998;19:61–109.
  • Herrington DM, Vittinghoff E, Lin F, Fong J, Harris F, Hunninghake D, et al. Statin therapy, cardiovascular events, and total mortality in the Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study (HERS). Circulation. 2002;105:2962–7.
  • Grady D, Herrington D, Bittner V, Blumenthal R, Davidson M, Hlatky M, et al. Cardiovascular disease outcomes during 6.8 years of hormone therapy: Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study follow-up (HERS II). JAMA. 2002;288:49–57.
  • Cherry N, Gilmour K, Hannaford P, Heagerty A, Khan MA, Kitchener H, et al. Oestrogen therapy for prevention of reinfarction in postmenopausal women: a randomised placebo controlled trial. Lancet. 2002;360:2001–8.
  • Manson JE, Hsia J, Johnson KC, Rossouw JE, Assaf AR, Lasser NL, et al. Estrogen plus progestin and the risk of coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:523–34.
  • Anderson GL, Limacher M, Assaf AR, Bassford T, Beresford SA, Black H, et al. Effects of conjugated equine estrogen in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy: the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;291:1701–12.
  • Hsia J, Langer RD, Manson JE, Kuller L, Johnson KC, Hendrix SL, et al. Conjugated equine estrogens and coronary heart disease: the Women's Health Initiative. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166:357–65.
  • Manson JE, Allison MA, Rossouw JE, Carr JJ, Langer RD, Hsia J, et al. Estrogen therapy and coronary-artery calcification. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:2591–602.
  • Rossouw JE, Prentice RL, Manson JE, Wu L, Barad D, Barnabei VM, et al. Postmenopausal hormone therapy and risk of cardiovascular disease by age and years since menopause. JAMA. 2007;297:1465–77.
  • Rossouw JE, Manson JE, Kaunitz AM, Anderson GL. Lessons learned from the Women's Health Initiative trials of menopausal hormone therapy. Obstet Gynecol. 2013;121:172–6.
  • Utian WH. NIH and WHI: time for a mea culpa and steps beyond. Menopause. 2007;14:1056–9.
  • Grodstein F, Clarkson TB, Manson JE. Understanding the divergent data on postmenopausal hormone therapy. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:645–50.
  • Mikkola TS, Clarkson TB, Notelovitz M. Postmenopausal hormone therapy before and after the Women's Health Initiative study: what consequences?Ann Med. 2004;36:402–13.
  • Mikkola TS, Ylikorkala O. Hormone therapy and cardiovascular disease—still much to be learnt. Gynecol Endocrinol. 2005;20:116–20.
  • Mikkola TS, Clarkson TB. Coronary heart disease and postmenopausal hormone therapy: conundrum explained by timing?J Womens Health (Larchmt). 2006;15:51–3.
  • Grodstein F, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ. Hormone therapy and coronary heart disease: the role of time since menopause and age at hormone initiation. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 2006;15:35–44.
  • Ryan J, Canonico M, Carcaillon L, Carriere I, Scali J, Dartigues JF, et al. Hormone treatment, estrogen receptor polymorphisms and mortality: a prospective cohort study. PLoS One. 2012;7:e34112.
  • Mendelsohn ME, Karas RH. Molecular and cellular basis of cardiovascular gender differences. Science. 2005;308:1583–7.
  • Ouyang P, Michos ED, Karas RH. Hormone replacement therapy and the cardiovascular system lessons learned and unanswered questions. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;47:1741–53.
  • Clarkson TB, Mehaffey MH. Coronary heart disease of females: lessons learned from nonhuman primates. Am J Primatol. 2009;71:785–93.
  • Hodis HN, Collins P, Mack WJ, Schierbeck LL. The timing hypothesis for coronary heart disease prevention with hormone therapy: past, present and future in perspective. Climacteric. 2012;15:217–28.
  • Atsma F, Bartelink ML, Grobbee DE, van der Schouw YT. Postmenopausal status and early menopause as independent risk factors for cardiovascular disease: a meta-analysis. Menopause. 2006;13:265–79.
  • Archer DF. Premature menopause increases cardiovascular risk. Climacteric. 2009;12(Suppl 1):26–31.
  • Rivera CM, Grossardt BR, Rhodes DJ, Brown RD Jr, Roger VL, Melton LJ 3rd, et al. Increased cardiovascular mortality after early bilateral oophorectomy. Menopause. 2009;16:15–23.
  • Henderson BE, Paganini-Hill A, Ross RK. Estrogen replacement therapy and protection from acute myocardial infarction. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1988;159:312–17.
  • Paganini-Hill A, Ross RK, Henderson BE. Postmenopausal oestrogen treatment and stroke: a prospective study. BMJ. 1988;297:519–22.
  • Sourander L, Rajala T, Raiha I, Makinen J, Erkkola R, Helenius H. Cardiovascular and cancer morbidity and mortality and sudden cardiac death in postmenopausal women on oestrogen replacement therapy (ERT). Lancet. 1998;352:1965–9.
  • Hernan MA, Alonso A, Logan R, Grodstein F, Michels KB, Willett WC, et al. Observational studies analyzed like randomized experiments: an application to postmenopausal hormone therapy and coronary heart disease. Epidemiology. 2008;19:766–79.
  • Kim J, Evans S, Smeeth L, Pocock S. Hormone replacement therapy and acute myocardial infarction: a large observational study exploring the influence of age. Int J Epidemiol. 2006;35:731–8.
  • Lokkegaard E, Andreasen AH, Jacobsen RK, Nielsen LH, Agger C, Lidegaard O. Hormone therapy and risk of myocardial infarction: a national register study. Eur Heart J. 2008;29:2660–8.
  • Schierbeck LL, Rejnmark L, Tofteng CL, Stilgren L, Eiken P, Mosekilde L, et al. Effect of hormone replacement therapy on cardiovascular events in recently postmenopausal women: randomised trial. BMJ. 2012; 345:e6409.
  • Tuomikoski P, Ylikorkala O, Mikkola TS. Menopausal hot flushes and vascular health. Ann Med. 2011;43:283–91.
  • Mikkola TS. The hot flush—a determinant for vascular effects of estrogen?Maturitas. 2011;69:287–8.
  • Freedman RR. Pathophysiology and treatment of menopausal hot flashes. Semin Reprod Med. 2005;23:117–25.
  • Archer DF, Sturdee DW, Baber R, de Villiers TJ, Pines A, Freedman RR, et al. Menopausal hot flushes and night sweats: where are we now?Climacteric. 2011;14:515–28.
  • van der Schouw YT, Grobbee DE. Menopausal complaints, oestrogens, and heart disease risk: an explanation for discrepant findings on the benefits of post-menopausal hormone therapy. Eur Heart J. 2005;26: 1358–61.
  • Mendelsohn ME, Karas RH. HRT and the young at heart. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:2639–41.
  • Szmuilowicz ED, Manson JE, Rossouw JE, Howard BV, Margolis KL, Greep NC, et al. Vasomotor symptoms and cardiovascular events in postmenopausal women. Menopause. 2011;18:603–10.
  • Tuomikoski P, Ebert P, Groop PH, Haapalahti P, Hautamäki H, Rönnback M, et al. Effect of hot flushes on vascular function; a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol. 2009;114:777–85.
  • Tuomikoski P, Haapalahti P, Sarna S, Ylikorkala O, Mikkola TS. Vasomotor hot flushes and 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure in normotensive women: a placebo-controlled trial on post-menopausal hormone therapy. Ann Med. 2010;42:334–43.
  • Tuomikoski P, Mikkola TS, Tikkanen MJ, Ylikorkala O. Hot flushes and biochemical markers for cardiovascular disease: a randomized trial on hormone therapy. Climacteric. 2010;13:457–66.
  • Gast GC, Pop VJ, Samsioe GN, Grobbee DE, Nilsson PM, Keyzer JJ, et al. Hormone therapy and coronary heart disease risk by vasomotor menopausal symptoms. Maturitas. 2011;70:373–8.
  • Huang AJ, Sawaya GF, Vittinghoff E, Lin F, Grady D. Hot flushes, coronary heart disease, and hormone therapy in postmenopausal women. Menopause. 2009;16:639–43.
  • Svartberg J, von Muhlen D, Kritz-Silverstein D, Barrett-Connor E. Vasomotor symptoms and mortality: the Rancho Bernardo study. Menopause. 2009;16:888–91.
  • Bretler DM, Hansen PR, Sorensen R, Lindhardsen J, Ahlehoff O, Andersson C, et al. Discontinuation of hormone replacement therapy after myocardial infarction and short term risk of adverse cardiovascular events: nationwide cohort study. BMJ. 2012;344:e1802.
  • Koivu TA, Fan YM, Mattila KM, Dastidar P, Jokela H, Nikkari ST, et al. The effect of hormone replacement therapy on atherosclerotic severity in relation to ESR1 genotype in postmenopausal women. Maturitas. 2003;44:29–38.
  • Schindler TH, Campisi R, Dorsey D, Prior JO, Olschewski M, Sayre J, et al. Effect of hormone replacement therapy on vasomotor function of the coronary microcirculation in post-menopausal women with medically treated cardiovascular risk factors. Eur Heart J. 2009;30: 978–86.
  • Schenck-Gustafsson K, Brincat M, Erel CT, Gambacciani M, Lambrinoudaki I, Moen MH, et al. EMAS position statement: managing the menopause in the context of coronary heart disease. Maturitas. 2011;68:94–7.
  • Pines A. Post-myocardial infarction hormone therapy revisited. Climacteric. 2012;15:538–41.
  • Simon JA. What's new in hormone replacement therapy: focus on transdermal estradiol and micronized progesterone. Climacteric. 2012;15(Suppl 1):3–10.
  • Purbrick B, Stranks K, Sum C, MacLennan AH. Future long-term trials of postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy - what is possible and what is the optimal protocol and regimen?Climacteric. 2012;15: 288–93.
  • Harman SM, Brinton EA, Cedars M, Lobo R, Manson JE, Merriam GR, et al. KEEPS: the Kronos Early Estrogen Prevention Study. Climacteric. 2005;8:3–12.
  • ELITE: Early versus Late Intervention Trial with Estradiol. Available at: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00114517.
  • Hormone therapy has many favorable effects in newly menopausal women: initial findings of the Kronos Early Estrogen Prevention Study (KEEPS). Available at: http://www.keepstudy.org/news/pr_100312_a.pdf.
  • Kagan R. The tissue selective estrogen complex: a novel approach to the treatment of menopausal symptoms. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 2012;21:975–81.
  • Pfizer pipeline. Available at: http://www.pfizer.com/files/research/pipeline/2012_1108/pipeline_2012_1108.pdf.
  • Pinkerton JV, Stovall DW. Is there an association between vasomotor symptoms and both low bone density and cardiovascular risk?Menopause. 2009;16:219–23.
  • Huang Y, Malone KE, Cushing-Haugen KL, Daling JR, Li CI. Relationship between menopausal symptoms and risk of postmenopausal breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2011;20:379–88.
  • Grodstein F, Stampfer MJ, Falkeborn M, Naessen T, Persson I. Postmenopausal hormone therapy and risk of cardiovascular disease and hip fracture in a cohort of Swedish women. Epidemiology. 1999; 10:476–80.
  • Prentice RL, Langer R, Stefanick ML, Howard BV, Pettinger M, Anderson G, et al. Combined postmenopausal hormone therapy and cardiovascular disease: toward resolving the discrepancy between observational studies and the Women's Health Initiative clinical trial. Am J Epidemiol. 2005;162:404–14.
  • Pentti K, Honkanen R, Tuppurainen MT, Sandini L, Kroger H, Saarikoski S. Hormone replacement therapy and mortality in 52- to 70-year-old women: the Kuopio osteoporosis risk factor and prevention study. Eur J Endocrinol. 2006;154:101–7.
  • Lakoski SG, Brosnihan B, Herrington DM. Hormone therapy, C-reactive protein, and progression of atherosclerosis: data from the Estrogen Replacement on progression of coronary artery Atherosclerosis (ERA) trial. Am Heart J. 2005;150:907–11.
  • Angerer P, Stork S, Kothny W, Schmitt P, von Schacky C. Effect of oral postmenopausal hormone replacement on progression of atherosclerosis: a randomized, controlled trial. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2001; 21:262–8.
  • Clarke SC, Kelleher J, Lloyd-Jones H, Slack M, Schofiel PM. A study of hormone replacement therapy in postmenopausal women with ischaemic heart disease: the Papworth HRT atherosclerosis study. BJOG. 2002;109:1056–62.
  • Waters DD, Alderman EL, Hsia J, Howard BV, Cobb FR, Rogers WJ, et al. Effects of hormone replacement therapy and antioxidant vitamin supplements on coronary atherosclerosis in postmenopausal women: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2002;288:2432–40.
  • Hodis HN, Mack WJ, Azen SP, Lobo RA, Shoupe D, Mahrer PR, et al. Hormone therapy and the progression of coronary-artery atherosclerosis in postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med. 2003;349: 535–45.
  • Collins P, Flather M, Lees B, Mister R, Proudler AJ, Stevenson JC, et al. Randomized trial of effects of continuous combined HRT on markers of lipids and coagulation in women with acute coronary syndromes: WHISP pilot study. Eur Heart J. 2006;27:2046–53.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.