1,035
Views
21
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
REVIEW ARTICLE

A review of simple, non-invasive means of assessing peripheral arterial disease and implications for medical management

&
Pages 115-126 | Received 20 Jul 2009, Accepted 01 Dec 2009, Published online: 15 Feb 2010

References

  • Zavaleta EG, Fernandez BB, Grove MK, Kaye MD. St. Anthony’s fire (ergotamine induced leg ischemia)—a case report and review of the literature. Angiology. 2001;52: 349–56.
  • Meijer WT, Grobbee DE, Hunink MG, Hofman A, Hoes AW. Determinants of peripheral arterial disease in the elderly: The Rotterdam study. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160: 2934–8.
  • Hirsch AT, Haskal ZJ, Hertzer NR, Bakal CW, Creager MA, Halperin JL, . ACC/AHA 2005 guidelines for the management of patients with peripheral arterial disease (lower extremity, renal, mesenteric, and abdominal aortic): Executive summary A collaborative report from the American Association for Vascular Surgery/Society for Vascular Surgery, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, Society for Vascular Medicine and Biology, Society of Interventional Radiology, and the ACC/AHA Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Develop Guidelines for the Management of Patients With Peripheral Arterial Disease) endorsed by the American Association of Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Rehabilitation; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; Society for Vascular Nursing; TransAtlantic Inter-Society Consensus; and Vascular Disease Foundation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;47: 1239–312.
  • Hirsch AT, Criqui MH, Treat-Jacobson D, Regensteiner JG, Creager MA, Olin JW, . Peripheral arterial disease detection, awareness, and treatment in primary care. JAMA. 2001;286:1317–24.
  • Rosamond W, Flegal K, Friday G, Furie K, Go A, Greenlund K, . Heart disease and stroke statistics—2007 update: A report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Circulation. 2007;115:e69–171.
  • Criqui MH, Fronek A, Barrett-Connor E, Klauber MR, Gabriel S, Goodman D. The prevalence of peripheral arterial disease in a defined population. Circulation. 1985;71: 510–5.
  • Kannel WB. The demographics of claudication and the aging of the American population. Vasc Med. 1996;1:60–4.
  • Weitz JI, Byrne J, Clagett GP, Farkouh ME, Porter JM, Sackett DL, . Diagnosis and treatment of chronic arterial insufficiency of the lower extremities: A critical review. Circulation. 1996;94:3026–49.
  • Meijer WT, Hoes AW, Rutgers D, Bots ML, Hofman A, Grobbee DE. Peripheral arterial disease in the elderly: The Rotterdam Study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1998;18:185–92.
  • National Cholesterol Education Program Expert Panel. Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) final report. Circulation. 2002;106:3143–421.
  • Bhatt DL, Steg PG, Ohman EM, Hirsch AT, Ikeda Y, Mas JL, . International prevalence, recognition, and treatment of cardiovascular risk factors in outpatients with atherothrombosis. JAMA. 2006;295:180–9.
  • McDermott MM, Mehta S, Liu K, Guralnik JM, Martin GJ, Criqui MH, . Leg symptoms, the ankle-brachial index, and walking ability in patients with peripheral arterial disease. J Gen Intern Med. 1999;14:173–81.
  • McDermott MM, Mehta S, Greenland P. Exertional leg symptoms other than intermittent claudication are common in peripheral arterial disease. Arch Intern Med. 1999;159: 387–92.
  • McDermott MM, Greenland P, Liu K, Guralnik JM, Criqui MH, Dolan NC, . Leg symptoms in peripheral arterial disease: Associated clinical characteristics and functional impairment. JAMA. 2001;286:1599–606.
  • Norgren L, Hiatt WR, Dormandy JA, Nehler MR, Harris KA, Fowkes FG, . Inter-Society Consensus for the Management of Peripheral Arterial Disease (TASC II). Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2007;33 Suppl 1:S1–75.
  • Collins TC, Beyth RJ, Nelson DB, Petersen NJ, Suarez-Almazor ME, Bush RL, . Process of care and outcomes in patients with peripheral arterial disease. J Gen Intern Med. 2007;22:942–8.
  • Newman AB, Sutton-Tyrrell K, Vogt MT, Kuller LH. Morbidity and mortality in hypertensive adults with a low ankle/arm blood pressure index. JAMA. 1993;270:487–9.
  • Criqui MH, Denenberg JO. The generalized nature of atherosclerosis: How peripheral arterial disease may predict adverse events from coronary artery disease. Vasc Med. 1998;3:241–5.
  • Golomb BA, Dang TT, Criqui MH. Peripheral arterial disease: Morbidity and mortality implications. Circulation. 2006;114:688–99.
  • Criqui MH, Langer RD, Fronek A, Feigelson HS, Klauber MR, McCann TJ, . Mortality over a period of 10 years in patients with peripheral arterial disease. N Engl J Med. 1992;326:381–6.
  • Criqui MH. Peripheral arterial disease—epidemiological aspects. Vasc Med. 2001;6:3–7.
  • McKenna M, Wolfson S, Kuller L. The ratio of ankle and arm arterial pressure as an independent predictor of mortality. Atherosclerosis. 1991;87:119–28.
  • Beaglehole R, Irwin A, Prentice T. The world health report 2004—changing history. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. 2004.
  • Hebert K, Lopez B, Macedo FY, Gomes CR, Urena J, Arcement LM. Peripheral vascular disease and erectile dysfunction as predictors of mortality in heart failure patients. J Sex Med. 2009;6:1999–2007.
  • Yusuf S, Sleight P, Pogue J, Bosch J, Davies R, Dagenais G. Effects of an angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor, ramipril, on cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. The Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:145–53.
  • Steg PG, Bhatt DL, Wilson PW, D’Agostino R Sr, Ohman EM, Rother J, . One-year cardiovascular event rates in outpatients with atherothrombosis. JAMA. 2007;297:1197–206.
  • McDermott MM, Guralnik JM, Ferrucci L, Tian L, Liu K, Liao Y, . Asymptomatic peripheral arterial disease is associated with more adverse lower extremity characteristics than intermittent claudication. Circulation. 2008;117: 2484–91.
  • Leng GC, Lee AJ, Fowkes FGR, Whiteman M, Dunbar J, Housely E, . Incidence, natural history and cardiovascular events in symptomatic and asymptomatic peripheral arterial disease in the general population. Int J Epidemiol. 1996;25:1172–81.
  • McLafferty RB, Dunnington GL, Mattos MA, Markwell SJ, Ramsey DE, Henretta JP, . Factors affecting the diagnosis of peripheral vascular disease before vascular surgery referral. J Vasc Surg. 2000;31:870–9.
  • English JA, Carell ES, Guidera SA, Tripp HF. Angiographic prevalence and clinical predictors of left subclavian stenosis in patients undergoing diagnostic cardiac catheterization. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv. 2001;54:8–11.
  • Krijnen P, van Jaarsveld BC, Steyerberg EW, Man in ‘t Veld AJ, Schalekamp MA, Habbema JD. A clinical prediction rule for renal artery stenosis. Ann Intern Med. 1998;129:705–11.
  • Spertus J, Jones P, Poler S, Rocha-Singh K. The peripheral artery questionnaire: A new disease-specific health status measure for patients with peripheral arterial disease. Am Heart J. 2004;147:301–8.
  • Fowkes FG. The measurement of atherosclerotic peripheral arterial disease in epidemiological surveys. Int J Epidemiol. 1988;17:248–54.
  • Hiatt WR. Medical treatment of peripheral arterial disease and claudication. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:1608–21.
  • Fowkes FG, Murray GD, Butcher I, Heald CL, Lee RJ, Chambless LE, . Ankle brachial index combined with Framingham Risk Score to predict cardiovascular events and mortality: A meta-analysis. JAMA. 2008;300: 197–208.
  • Newman AB, Siscovick DS, Manolio TA, Polak J, Fried LP, Borhani NO, . Ankle-arm index as a marker of atherosclerosis in the Cardiovascular Health Study. Cardiovascular Heart Study (CHS) Collaborative Research Group. Circulation. 1993;88:837–45.
  • Vogt MT, Cauley JA, Newman AB, Kuller LH, Hulley SB. Decreased ankle/arm blood pressure index and mortality in elderly women. JAMA. 1993;270:465–9.
  • Zheng ZJ, Sharrett AR, Chambless LE, Rosamond WD, Nieto FJ, Sheps DS, . Associations of ankle-brachial index with clinical coronary heart disease, stroke and preclinical carotid and popliteal atherosclerosis: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Atherosclerosis. 1997;131:115–25.
  • Sikkink CJ, van Asten WN, van ‘t Hof MA, van Langen H, van der Vliet JA. Decreased ankle/brachial indices in relation to morbidity and mortality in patients with peripheral arterial disease. Vasc Med. 1997;2:169–73.
  • Ostergren J, Sleight P, Dagenais G, Danisa K, Bosch J, Qilong Y, . Impact of ramipril in patients with evidence of clinical or subclinical peripheral arterial disease. Eur Heart J. 2004;25:17–24.
  • Morillas P, Cordero A, Bertomeu V, Gonzalez-Juanatey JR, Quiles J, Guindo J, . Prognostic value of low ankle-brachial index in patients with hypertension and acute coronary syndromes. J Hypertens. 2009;27:341–7.
  • Ramos R, Quesada M, Solanas P, Subirana I, Sala J, Vila J, . Prevalence of symptomatic and asymptomatic peripheral arterial disease and the value of the ankle-brachial index to stratify cardiovascular risk. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2009;38:305–11.
  • Cacoub P, Cambou JP, Kownator S, Belliard JP, Beregi JP, Branchereau A, . Prevalence of peripheral arterial disease in high-risk patients using ankle-brachial index in general practice: A cross-sectional study. Int J Clin Pract. 2009; 63:63–70.
  • Lange SF, Trampisch HJ, Pittrow D, Darius H, Mahn M, Allenberg JR, . Profound influence of different methods for determination of the ankle brachial index on the prevalence estimate of peripheral arterial disease. BMC Public Health. 2007;7:147.
  • Espinola-Klein C, Rupprecht HJ, Bickel C, Lackner K, Savvidis S, Messow CM, . Different calculations of ankle-brachial index and their impact on cardiovascular risk prediction. Circulation. 2008;118:961–7.
  • Fowkes FG, Housley E, Macintyre CC, Prescott RJ, Ruckley CV. Variability of ankle and brachial systolic pressures in the measurement of atherosclerotic peripheral arterial disease. J Epidemiol Community Health. 1988;42:128–33.
  • Nicolaï SP, Kruidenier LM, Rouwet EV, Bartelink ML, Prins MH, Teijink JA. Ankle brachial index measurement in primary care: Are we doing it right? Br J Gen Pract. 2009;59: 422–7.
  • Resnick HE, Lindsay RS, McDermott MM, Devereux RB, Jones KL, Fabsitz RR, . Relationship of high and low ankle brachial index to all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality: The Strong Heart Study. Circulation. 2004;109: 733–9.
  • Wütschert R, Bounameaux H. Determination of amputation level in ischemic limbs. Reappraisal of the measurement of TcPo2. Diabetes Care. 1997;20:1315–8.
  • Brown LC, Johnson JA, Majumdar SR, Tsuyuki RT, McAlister FA. Evidence of suboptimal management of cardiovascular risk in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and symptomatic atherosclerosis. CMAJ. 2004;171:1189–92.
  • The DCCT Research Group. Effect of intensive diabetes management on macrovascular events and risk factors in the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. Am J Cardiol. 1995;75:894–903.
  • Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Lancet. 1998;352:837–53.
  • Mohler ER 3rd, Hiatt WR, Creager MA. Cholesterol reduction with atorvastatin improves walking distance in patients with peripheral arterial disease. Circulation. 2003;108: 1481–6.
  • Brown BG, Zhao XQ, Chait A, Fisher LD, Cheung MC, Morse JS, . Simvastatin and niacin, antioxidant vitamins, or the combination for the prevention of coronary disease. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1583–92.
  • Miller M, Cannon CP, Murphy SA, Qin J, Ray KK, Braunwald E. Impact of triglyceride levels beyond low-density lipoprotein cholesterol after acute coronary syndrome in the PROVE IT-TIMI 22 trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;51:724–30.
  • Paravastu SC, Mendonca D, Da Silva A. Beta blockers for peripheral arterial disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008;CD005508.
  • Ahimastos AA, Lawler A, Reid CM, Blombery PA, Kingwell BA. Brief communication: Ramipril markedly improves walking ability in patients with peripheral arterial disease: A randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2006;144:660–4.
  • Ahimastos AA, Dart AM, Lawler A, Blombery PA, Kingwell BA. Reduced arterial stiffness may contribute to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor induced improvements in walking time in peripheral arterial disease patients. J Hypertens. 2008;26:1037–42.
  • Antithrombotic Trialists’ Collaboration. Collaborative meta-analysis of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy for prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke in high risk patients. BMJ. 2002;324:71–86.
  • A randomised, blinded, trial of clopidogrel versus aspirin in patients at risk of ischaemic events (CAPRIE). CAPRIE Steering Committee. Lancet. 1996;348:1329–39.
  • Mehta SR, Yusuf S, Peters RJ, Bertrand ME, Lewis BS, Natarajan MK, . Effects of pretreatment with clopidogrel and aspirin followed by long-term therapy in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention: The PCI-CURE study. Lancet. 2001;358:527–33.
  • Steinhubl SR, Berger PB, Mann JT 3rd, Fry ET, DeLago A, Wilmer C, . Early and sustained dual oral antiplatelet therapy following percutaneous coronary intervention: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2002;288:2411–20.
  • Yusuf S, Zhao F, Mehta SR, Chrolavicius S, Tognoni G, Fox KK. Effects of clopidogrel in addition to aspirin in patients with acute coronary syndromes without ST-segment elevation. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:494–502.
  • Bhatt DL, Fox KA, Hacke W, Berger PB, Black HR, Boden WE, . Clopidogrel and aspirin versus aspirin alone for the prevention of atherothrombotic events. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:1706–17.
  • Bhatt DL, Flather MD, Hacke W, Berger PB, Black HR, Boden WE, . Patients with prior myocardial infarction, stroke, or symptomatic peripheral arterial disease in the CHARISMA trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;49: 1982–8.
  • Anand SS, Yusuf S. Oral anticoagulants in patients with coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003; 41: 62S–9S.
  • Anand S, Yusuf S, Xie C, Pogue J, Eikelboom J, Budaj A, . Oral anticoagulant and antiplatelet therapy and peripheral arterial disease. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:217–27.
  • Gardner AW, Poehlman ET. Exercise rehabilitation programs for the treatment of claudication pain. A meta-analysis. JAMA. 1995;274:975–80.
  • Leng GC, Fowler B, Ernst E. Exercise for intermittent claudication. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000;CD000990.
  • Milani RV, Lavie CJ. The role of exercise training in peripheral arterial disease. Vasc Med. 2007;12:351–8.
  • Beebe HG, Dawson DL, Cutler BS, Herd JA, Strandness DE Jr, Bortey EB, . A new pharmacological treatment for intermittent claudication: Results of a randomized, multicenter trial. Arch Intern Med. 1999;159:2041–50.
  • Dawson DL, Cutler BS, Meissner MH, Strandness DE Jr. Cilostazol has beneficial effects in treatment of intermittent claudication: Results from a multicenter, randomized, prospective, double-blind trial. Circulation. 1998;98: 678–86.
  • Money SR, Herd JA, Isaacsohn JL, Davidson M, Cutler B, Heckman J, . Effect of cilostazol on walking distances in patients with intermittent claudication caused by peripheral vascular disease. J Vasc Surg. 1998;27:267–74; discussion 74–5.
  • Strandness DE Jr, Dalman RL, Panian S, Rendell MS, Comp PC, Zhang P, . Effect of cilostazol in patients with intermittent claudication: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Vasc Endovascular Surg. 2002; 36:83–91.
  • Dawson DL, Cutler BS, Hiatt WR, Hobson RW 2nd, Martin JD, Bortey EB, . A comparison of cilostazol and pentoxifylline for treating intermittent claudication. Am J Med. 2000;109:523–30.
  • Mohler ER 3rd, Beebe HG, Salles-Cuhna S, Zimet R, Zhang P, Heckman J, . Effects of cilostazol on resting ankle pressures and exercise-induced ischemia in patients with intermittent claudication. Vasc Med. 2001;6:151–6.
  • Chapman TM, Goa KL. Cilostazol: A review of its use in intermittent claudication. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs. 2003;3: 117–38.
  • Girolami B, Bernardi E, Prins MH, Ten Cate JW, Hettiarachchi R, Prandoni P, . Treatment of intermittent claudication with physical training, smoking cessation, pentoxifylline, or nafronyl: A meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med. 1999; 159:337–45.
  • Bianchi C, Montalvo V, Ou HW, Bishop V, Abou-Zamzam AM Jr. Pharmacologic risk factor treatment of peripheral arterial disease is lacking and requires vascular surgeon participation. Ann Vasc Surg. 2007;21:163–6.
  • McDermott MM, Hahn EA, Greenland P, Cella D, Ockene JK, Brogan D, . Atherosclerotic risk factor reduction in peripheral arterial disease: Results of a national physician survey. J Gen Intern Med. 2002;17:895–904.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.