Diagnostic problems of nosocomial infections in patients with severe sepsis and ongoing antimicrobial treatment — efficiency and value of serum inflammatory markers and routine microbiological monitoring

References

• Burnett RJ, Haverstock DC, Dellinger EP, et al. Definition of the role of enterococcus in intraabdominal infection: analysis of a prospective randomized trial. Surgery 1995;118:716–21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garnacho-Montero J, Garcia-Garmendia JL, Barrero-Almo-dovar A, Jimenez-Jimenez F, Perez-Paredes C, Ortiz-Leyba C. Impact of adequate empirical antibiotic therapy on the outcome of patients admitted to the intensive care unit with sepsis. Grit Care Med 2003;31:2742–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harbarth S, Ferriere K, Hugonnet S, Ricou B, Suter P, PittetD. Epidemiology and prognostic determinants of bloodstream infections in surgical intensive care. Arch Surg 2002;137: 1353–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoste E, Blot S, Lameire N, Vanholder R, De Bacquer D, Colardyn F. Effect of nosocomial bloodstream infection on the outcome of critically ill patients with acute renal failure treated with renal replacement therapy. J Am Soc Nephrol 2004;15:454–62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calandra T, Cohen J. The International Sepsis Forum Consensus Conference on Definitions of Infection in the Intensive Care Unit. Crit Care Med 2005;33:1538–48.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levy MM, Fink MP, Marshall JC, et al. 2001 SCCM/ ESICM/ATS/SIS International Sepsis Definitions Confer-ence. Intensive Care Med 2001;29:530–8.
   Google Scholar
• Brun-Buisson C, Doyon F, Carlet J, et al. Incidence, riskfactors, and outcome of severe sepsis and septic shock in adults. JANIA 1995;27:968–74.
   Google Scholar
• Brun-Buisson C. The epidemiology of the systemic inflam-matory response. Intensive Care Med 2000;26:64–74.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pittet D, Hansjakob F. Staff reduction and nosocomial infections. Swiss-NOSE 1997;4:1–5.
   Google Scholar
• Wei13 G, Wolf ST, Lippert H. Die Peritonitis-Hauptursache schwerer Sepsis auf chirurgischer Intensivstation. Zentralbl Chir 2007;132:130–7.
   Google Scholar
• Engelmann L. "Second hit" - a frequent cause of death in patients with severe sepsis. Intensiv-News 2003;5/03:1–2.
   Google Scholar
• Weiss G, Meyer F, Lippert H. Infectiological diagnostic problems in tertiary peritonitis. Langenbecks Arch Surg 2006;391:473–82.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kollef MH, Sherman G, Ward S, Fraser V. Inadequate antimicrobial treatment of infections: a risk factor for hospital mortality among critically ill patients. Chest 1999;115:462–74.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kollef MH. Inadequate antimicrobial treatment: an impor-tant determinant of outcome for hospitalized patients. Chin Infect Dis 2000;31:131–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leone M, Bourgoin A, Cambon S, Dubue M, Albanese J, Claude M. Empirical antimicrobial therapy of septic shock patients: adequacy and impact on the outcome. Grit Care Med 2003;31:462–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leroy 0, Meybeck A, Escrivan T, Devos P, Kipnis E, Georges H. Impact of adequacy of initial antimicrobial therapy on the prognosis of patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia. Intensive Care Med 2003;29:2170–3.
   Google Scholar
• Luna CM, Vujacich P, Niederman MS, et al. Impact of BAL data on the therapy and outcome of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest 1997;111:676–85.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacArthur R, Miller M, Albertson T, et al. Adequacy of early empiric antibiotic treatment and survival in severe sepsis: experience from the Monarcs trial. Clin Infect Dis 2004;38: 284–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rello J, Ausina V, Ricart M, Castella J, Prats G. Impact of previous antimicrobial therapy on the etiology and outcome of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest 1993;104:1230–5.
   Google Scholar
• Ibrahim EH, Shermann G, Ward S, Fraser V, Kollef MH. The influence of inadequate antimicrobial treatment of bloodstream infections on patient outcome in the ICU setting. Chest 2000;118:146–55.
   Google Scholar
• Iregui M, Ward S, Sherman G, Fraser VJ, Kollef MH. Clinical importance of delays in the initiation of appropriate treatment for ventilator associated pneumonia. Chest 2002; 122:262–8.
   Google Scholar
• National Center for Surveillance of Nosocomial Infections: antibiotic therapy in surgical ICU's from 2000 to 2004 (www.nrz-hygiene.de).
   Google Scholar
• Meisner M. Procalcitonin (PCT). Stuttgart: Thieme; 2000. pp 63–92.
   Google Scholar
• Brünnler T, Langgarmer J, Klebl F, Salzberger B, Schölmer-ich J. Routine microbiological monitoring in the ICU setting - update. Intensivmed 2004;41:248–54.
   Google Scholar
• Hauer T, Dziekan G, Kruger WA, Riiden H, Daschner F. Reasonable and unreasonable hygiene measures in anesthesia in the intensive care unit. Andesthesist 2000;49:96–101.
   Google Scholar
• O'Grady NP, Alexander M, Dellinger EP, et al. Guidelines for the prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections. MNIWR Recomm Rep 9 2002;51:1–29.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tablan OC, Anderson LJ, Besser R, Bridges C, Hajjeh R. Guidelines for preventing health-care-associated pneumonia; Recommendations of CDC and the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. MMWR Recomm Rep 26 2004;53:1–36.
   Google Scholar
• Bach A. Routine microbiological monitoring in ICU patients. AINS 1997;32:117–9.
   Google Scholar
• Baumert JH, Spellerberg B. Microbiological monitoring and empirical antibiotic therapy in acute pulmonary failure. Intensivmed 2002;39:645–54.
   Google Scholar
• Shield M, Hammill HJ, Neale DA. Systematic bacteriological monitoring of intensive care unit patients: the results of a twelve month study. Intensive Care Med 1979;5:171–81.
   Google Scholar
• Hayon J, Figliolini C, Combers A, et al. Role of serial routine microbiologic culture results in the initial management of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Resp Crit Care Med 2002; 165:41–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scheidegger C, Zimmerli W. Routine bacteriological screen-ing of intensive care patients: contra. Andsthes Intensivmed Notfallmed Schmerzther 1997;32:115–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ewig S, Torres A, Elebiary M, et al. Bacterial colonization patterns in mechanically ventilated patients with traumatic and medical head injury. Incidence, risk factors and associa-tion with ventilator-associated pneumonia. AJRCCM 1999; 159:188–98.
   Google Scholar
• Garrouste-Orgeas M, Chevret S, Arlet G, et al. Orophar-yngeal or gastric colonization and nosocomial pneumonia in adult intensive care unit patients. A prospective study based on genomic DNA analysis. AJRCCM 1997;56:1647–55.
   Google Scholar
• Cardenosa Cendrero JA, Sole-Violan J, Bordes Benitez A, et al. Role of different routes of tracheal colonization in the development of pneumonia in patients receiving mechanical ventilation. Chest 1999;116:462–70.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michel F, Franceschini B, Berger P, et al. Early antibiotic treatment for BAL-confirmed ventilator-associated pneumo-nia: a role for routine endotracheal aspirate cultures. Chest 2005;127:589–97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graevenitz A. Bacteriological and fungal screening in the ICU setting. Intensivmed 1995;32:547–51.
   Google Scholar
• Levin PD, Hersch M, Rudensky B, Yinnon AM. Routine surveillance blood cultures: their place in the management of critically ill patients. J Infect 1997;35:125–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strouhal U, Byhahn C, Martens S, et al. Value of routine bacteriological screening in septic patients on a cardiothoracic ICU. Z Herz-Thorax-GefaBchir 2000;14:137–42.
   Google Scholar
• Angus DC, Linde-Zwirble W, Lidicker J, Clermont G, Carcillo J, Pinsky R. Epidemiology of severe sepsis in the United States: analysis of incidence, outcome, and associated costs of care. Crit Care Med 2000;29(7):1303–10.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanisch E, Encke A. Intensive care management in abdom-inal surgical patients with septic complications. In Faist E, editor. Immunological screening and immunotherapy in critically ill patients with abdominal infections. Berlin: Springer; 2001. pp 71–83.
   Google Scholar
• Rangel-Frausto MS, Pittet D, Costigan M, Hwang T, Davis CS, Wenzel RP. The natural history of the systemic inflam-matory response syndrome (SIRS): a prospective study. JANIA 1995;273:234–40.
   Google Scholar
• Reith HB, Mittelkötter U. Markers of inflammation for prognosis and control of therapeutic success in patients with abdominal sepsis - options for using adjuvant intravenous immunglobulins. In Faist E, editor. Immunological screening and immunotherapy in critically ill patients with abdominal infections. Berlin: Springer; 2001. pp 15–28.
   Google Scholar
• Sasse KC, Nauenberg E, Long A, Anton B, Tucker HJ, Hu T. Long-term survival after intensive care unit admission with sepsis. Crit Care Med 1995;23:1040–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schoenberg MH, Weiss M, Redaemacher R Outcome of patients with sepsis and septic shock after ICU treatment. Langenbecks Arch Surg 1998;383:44–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schramm H, Fiedler I. Surgical management of peritonitis. In Fleischer GM, editor. Current surgical therapy of infections. Heidelberg: Barth; 1999. pp 143–8.
   Google Scholar
• Wade S, Biissow M, Hanisch E. Epidemiology of systemic inflammatory response syndrome, infection and septic shock in surgical intensive care patients. Chirurg 2004;69:648–55.
   Google Scholar
• Wolf M, Buggisch P, Tilov M, Kreymann KG. Observed and predicted mortality rate in patients with severe sepsis and septic shock: comparison of APACHE II and SAPS II score. Intensivmedizin Notfallmedizin 1997;34:416–25.
   Google Scholar
• Buijk SE, Bruining HA. Future directions in the management of tertiary peritonitis. Intensive Care Med 2002;28:1024–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marshall JC, Innes M. Intensive care unit management of intra-abdominal infection. Crit Care Med 2003;31:2228–37.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nathens AB, Rotstein 0, Marshall JC. Tertiary peritonitis: clinical features of a complex nosocomial infection. World J Surg 1998;22: 158–63.
   Google Scholar
• Brun-Buisson C, Thoraval FR, Girou E, Grenier-Sennelier C, Zaleski ID. The costs of septic syndromes in the intensive care unit and influence of hospital-acquired sepsis. Intensive Care Med 2003;29:1464–71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar