Environmental prevalence of Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii in India: An update

References

• Abegg MA, Cella FL, Faganello J, Valente P, Schrank A, Vainstein MH. (2006). Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii isolated from the excreta of psittaciformes in a southern Brazilian zoological garden. Mycopathologia, 161, 83–91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abraham M, Matthews MS, John TJ. (1997). Environmental isolation of Cryptococcus neoformans var. neoformans from Vellore. Indian J Med Res, 106, 458–459.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ajello L. (1958). Occurrence of Cryptococcus neoformans in soils. Am J Hyg, 67, 72–77.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banerjee U, Datta K, Casadevall A. (2004). Serotype distribution of Cryptococcus neoformans in patients in a tertiary care center in India. Med Mycol, 42, 181–186.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartlett KH, Kidd SE, Kronstad JW. (2008). The emergence of Cryptococcus gattii in British Columbia and the Pacific Northwest. Curr Infect Dis Rep, 10, 58–65.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bauwens L, Swinne D, De Vroey C, De Meurichy W. (1986). Isolation of Cryptococcus neoformans var. neoformans in the aviaries of the Antwerp Zoological Gardens. Mykosen, 29, 291–294.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Boekhout T, Theelen B, Diaz M, Fell JW, Hop WC, Abeln EC, Dromer F, Meyer W. (2001). Hybrid genotypes in the pathogenic yeast Cryptococcus neoformans. Microbiology, 147, 891–907.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boekhout T, van Belkum A. (1997). Variability of karyotypes and RAPD types in genetically related strains of Cryptococcus neoformans. Curr Genet, 32, 203–208.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boekhout T, van Belkum A, Leenders AC, Verbrugh HA, Mukamurangwa P, Swinne D, Scheffers WA. (1997). Molecular typing of Cryptococcus neoformans: taxonomic and epidemiological aspects. Int J Syst Bacteriol, 47, 432–442.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bovers M, Hagen F, Kuramae EE, Diaz MR, Spanjaard L, Dromer F, Hoogveld HL, Boekhout T. (2006). Unique hybrids between the fungal pathogens Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii. FEMS Yeast Res, 6, 599–607.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bovers M, Diaz MR, Hagen F, Spanjaard L, Duim B, Visser CE, Hoogveld HL, Scharringa J, Hoepelman IM, Fell JW, Boekhout T. (2007). Identification of genotypically diverse Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii isolates by Luminex xMAP technology. J Clin Microbiol, 45, 1874–1883.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bovers M, Hagen F, Kuramae EE, Boekhout T. (2008). Six monophyletic lineages identified within Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii by multi-locus sequence typing. Fungal Genet Biol, 45, 400–421.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buschke A. (1895). Uber eine durch coccidien hervorgerufene Krankheit des Menschen. Dtsch Med Wochenschr, 21, 14.
   Google Scholar
• Busse O. (1894). Uber parasitare Zelleinschlusse und ihre Zuchtung. Zentralbl Bakteriol, 16, 175–180.
   Google Scholar
• Byrnes EJ 3rd, Li W, Lewit Y, Ma H, Voelz K, Ren P, Carter DA, Chaturvedi V, Bildfell RJ, May RC, Heitman J. (2010). Emergence and pathogenicity of highly virulent Cryptococcus gattii genotypes in the northwest United States. PLoS Pathog, 6, e1000850.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Byrnes EJ 3rd, Bartlett KH, Perfect JR, Heitman J. (2011). Cryptococcus gattii: an emerging fungal pathogen infecting humans and animals. Microbes Infect, 13, 895–907.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cafarchia C, Romito D, Iatta R, Camarda A, Montagna MT, Otranto D. (2006). Role of birds of prey as carriers and spreaders of Cryptococcus neoformans and other zoonotic yeasts. Med Mycol, 44, 485–492.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caicedo LD, Alvarez MI, Delgado M, Cárdenas A. (1999). Cryptococcus neoformans in bird excreta in the city zoo of Cali, Colombia. Mycopathologia, 147, 121–124.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Callejas A, Ordoñez N, Rodriguez MC, Castañeda E. (1998). First isolation of Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii, serotype C, from the environment in Colombia. Med Mycol, 36, 341–344.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casadevall A, Perfect JR. (1998). Cryptococcus neoformans. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology.
   Google Scholar
• Chakrabarti A, Jatana M, Kumar P, Chatha L, Kaushal A, Padhye AA. (1997). Isolation of Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii from Eucalyptus camaldulensis in India. J Clin Microbiol, 35, 3340–3342.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chowdhary A, Hiremath SS, Sun S, Kowshik T, Randhawa HS, Xu J. (2011a). Genetic differentiation, recombination and clonal expansion in environmental populations of Cryptococcus gattii in India. Environ Microbiol, 13, 1875–1888.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chowdhary A, Randhawa HS, Sundar G, Kathuria S, Prakash A, Khan Z, Sun S, Xu J. (2011b). In vitro antifungal susceptibility profiles and genotypes of 308 clinical and environmental isolates of Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii and Cryptococcus gattii serotype B from north-western India. J Med Microbiol, 60, 961–967.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cogliati M, Esposto MC, Tortorano AM, Viviani MA. (2006). Cryptococcus neoformans population includes hybrid strains homozygous at mating-type locus. FEMS Yeast Res, 6, 608–613.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cogliati M, Chandrashekar N, Esposto MC, Chandramuki A, Petrini B, Viviani MA. (2011). Cryptococcus gattii serotype-C strains isolated in Bangalore, Karnataka, India. Mycoses, in press, doi: 10.1111/J. 1439-0.507.2011.02082.x
   Google Scholar
• Costa AK, Sidrim JJ, Cordeiro RA, Brilhante RS, Monteiro AJ, Rocha MF. (2010). Urban pigeons (Columba livia) as a potential source of pathogenic yeasts: a focus on antifungal susceptibility of Cryptococcus strains in Northeast Brazil. Mycopathologia, 169, 207–213.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Currie BP, Freundlich LF, Casadevall A. (1994). Restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of Cryptococcus neoformans isolates from environmental (pigeon excreta) and clinical sources in New York City. J Clin Microbiol, 32, 1188–1192.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Datta K, Bartlett KH, Baer R, Byrnes E, Galanis E, Heitman J, Hoang L, Leslie MJ, MacDougall L, Magill SS, Morshed MG, Marr KA; Cryptococcus gattii Working Group of the Pacific Northwest. (2009). Spread of Cryptococcus gattii into Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Emerging Infect Dis, 15, 1185–1191.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diaz MR, Boekhout T, Theelen B, Fell JW. (2000). Molecular sequence analyses of the intergenic spacer (IGS) associated with rDNA of the two varieties of the pathogenic yeast, Cryptococcus neoformans. Syst Appl Microbiol, 23, 535–545.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diaz MR, Fell JW. (2005). Use of a suspension array for rapid identification of the varieties and genotypes of the Cryptococcus neoformans species complex. J Clin Microbiol, 43, 3662–3672.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Eggert C, Temp U, Eriksson KE. (1996). The ligninolytic system of the white rot fungus Pycnoporus cinnabarinus: purification and characterization of the laccase. Appl Environ Microbiol, 62, 1151–1158.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellis DH, Pfeiffer TJ. (1990a). Natural habitat of Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii. J Clin Microbiol, 28, 1642–1644.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellis DH, Pfeiffer TJ. (1990b). Ecology, life cycle, and infectious propagule of Cryptococcus neoformans. Lancet, 336, 923–925.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emmons CW. (1951). Isolation of Cryptococcus neoformans from soil. J Bacteriol, 62, 685–690.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emmons CW. (1955). Saprophytic sources of Cryptococcus neoformans associated with the pigeon (Columba livia). Am J Hyg, 62, 227–232.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ergin C, Ilkit M, Hilmioglu S, Kaleli I, Gülbaba AG, Demirci M, Kaya S. (2004). The first isolation of Cryptococcus neoformans from Eucalyptus trees in South Aegean and Mediterranean regions of Anatolia in Turkey despite Taurus Mountains alkalinity. Mycopathologia, 158, 43–47.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ergin C, Ilkit M, Kaftanoglu O. (2004). Detection of Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii in honeybee (Apis mellifera) colonies. Mycoses, 47, 431–434.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Escandón P, Huérfano S, Castañeda E. (2002). [Experimental inoculation of Terminalia catappa seedlings with an environmental isolate of Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii serotype C]. Biomedica, 22, 524–528.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Feng X, Yao Z, Ren D, Liao W. (2008). Simultaneous identification of molecular and mating types within the Cryptococcus species complex by PCR-RFLP analysis. J Med Microbiol, 57, 1481–1490.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fiskin AM, Zalles MC, Garrison RG. (1990). Electron cytochemical studies of Cryptococcus neoformans grown on uric acid and related sources of nitrogen. J Med Vet Mycol, 28, 197–207.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fortes ST, Lazéra MS, Nishikawa MM, Macedo RC, Wanke B. (2001). First isolation of Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii from a native jungle tree in the Brazilian Amazon rainforest. Mycoses, 44, 137–140.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franzot SP, Hamdan JS, Currie BP, Casadevall A. (1997). Molecular epidemiology of Cryptococcus neoformans in Brazil and the United States: evidence for both local genetic differences and a global clonal population structure. J Clin Microbiol, 35, 2243–2251.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galanis E, Macdougall L. (2010). Epidemiology of Cryptococcus gattii, British Columbia, Canada, 1999-2007. Emerging Infect Dis, 16, 251–257.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia-Hermoso D, Mathoulin-Pélissier S, Couprie B, Ronin O, Dupont B, Dromer F. (1997). DNA typing suggests pigeon droppings as a source of pathogenic Cryptococcus neoformans serotype D. J Clin Microbiol, 35, 2683–2685.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• García-Rivera J, Casadevall A. (2001). Melanization of Cryptococcus neoformans reduces its susceptibility to the antimicrobial effects of silver nitrate. Med Mycol, 39, 353–357.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gezuele E, Calegari L, Sanabria D, Davel G, Civila E. (1993). Isolation in Uruguay of Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii from a nest of the wasp Polybia occidentalis. Rev Iberoam Micol, 10, 5–6.
   Google Scholar
• Girish Kumar CP, Prabu D, Mitani H, Mikami Y, Menon T. (2010). Environmental isolation of Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii from living trees in Guindy National Park, Chennai, South India. Mycoses, 53, 262–264.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Granados DP, Castañeda E. (2005). Isolation and characterization of Cryptococcus neoformans varieties recovered from natural sources in Bogotá, Colombia, and study of ecological conditions in the area. Microb Ecol, 49, 282–290.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gugnani HC, Gupta NP, Shrivastav JB. (1972). Prevalence of Cryptococcus neoformans in Delhi Zoological Park and its recovery from the sputum of an employee. Indian J Med Res, 60, 182–185.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gugnani HC, Mitchell TG, Litvintseva AP, Lengeler KB, Heitman J, Kumar A, Basu S, Paliwal-Joshi A. (2005). Isolation of Cryptococcus gattii and Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii from the flowers and bark of Eucalyptus trees in India. Med Mycol, 43, 565–569.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gugnani HC, Shome SK, Shrivastav JB, Murty DK, Gupta NP. (1967). Cryptococcus neoformans (Sanfelice) Vuillemin from natural habitats in India. Indian J Med Res, 55, 1290–1294.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gugnani HC, Shrivastav JB. (1972). Occurrence of pathogenic fungi in soil in India. Indian J Med Res, 60, 40–47.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hagen F, Illnait-Zaragozi MT, Bartlett KH, Swinne D, Geertsen E, Klaassen CH, Boekhout T, Meis JF. (2010). In vitro antifungal susceptibilities and amplified fragment length polymorphism genotyping of a worldwide collection of 350 clinical, veterinary, and environmental Cryptococcus gattii isolates. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 54, 5139–5145.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamasha AM, Yildiran ST, Gonlum A, Saracli MA, Doganci L. (2004). Cryptococcus neoformans varieties from material under the canopies of eucalyptus trees and pigeon dropping samples from four major cities in Jordan. Mycopathologia, 158, 195–199.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hedayati MT, Mayahi S, Fakhar M, Shokohi T, Majidi M. (2011). Cryptococcus neoformans isolation from swallow (Hirundo rustica) excreta in Iran. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo, 53, 125–127.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hiremath SS, Chowdhary A, Kowshik T, Randhawa HS, Sun S, Xu J. (2008). Long-distance dispersal and recombination in environmental populations of Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii from India. Microbiology, 154, 1513–1524.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hopfer RL, Blank F. (1976). Caffeic acid-containing medium for identification of Cryptococcus neoformans. J Clin Microbiol, 2, 115–120.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Illnait-Zaragozi MT, Martínez GF, Curfs-Breuker I, Fernández CM, Boekhout T, Meis JF. (2008). In vitro activity of the new azole isavuconazole (BAL4815) compared with six other antifungal agents against 162 Cryptococcus neoformans isolates from Cuba. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 52, 1580–1582.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Illnait-Zaragozi MT, Martínez-Machín GF, Fernández-Andreu CM, Boekhout T, Meis JF, Klaassen CH. (2010a). Microsatellite typing of clinical and environmental Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii isolates from Cuba shows multiple genetic lineages. PLoS ONE, 5, e9124.
   Google Scholar
• Illnait-Zaragozí MT, Martínez-Machín GF, Fernández-Andreu CM, Hagen F, Boekhout T, Klaassen CH, Meis JF. (2010b). Microsatellite typing and susceptibilities of serial Cryptococcus neoformans isolates from Cuban patients with recurrent cryptococcal meningitis. BMC Infect Dis, 10, 289.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Iqbal N, DeBess EE, Wohrle R, Sun B, Nett RJ, Ahlquist AM, Chiller T, Lockhart SR; Cryptococcus gattii Public Health Working Group. (2010). Correlation of genotype and in vitro susceptibilities of Cryptococcus gattii strains from the Pacific Northwest of the United States. J Clin Microbiol, 48, 539–544.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Irokanulo EA, Akueshi CO, Makinde AA. (1994). Differentiation of Cryptococcus neoformans serotypes A and D using creatinine dextrose bromothymol blue thymine medium. Br J Biomed Sci, 51, 100–103.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jain N, Wickes BL, Keller SM, Fu J, Casadevall A, Jain P, Ragan MA, Banerjee U, Fries BC. (2005). Molecular epidemiology of clinical Cryptococcus neoformans strains from India. J Clin Microbiol, 43, 5733–5742.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katsu M, Kidd S, Ando A, Moretti-Branchini ML, Mikami Y, Nishimura K, Meyer W. (2004). The internal transcribed spacers and 5.8S rRNA gene show extensive diversity among isolates of the Cryptococcus neoformans species complex. FEMS Yeast Res, 4, 377–388.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khan ZU, Pal M, Randhawa HS, Sandhu RS. (1978). Carriage of Cryptococcus neoformans in the crops of pigeons. J Med Microbiol, 11, 215–218.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khan ZU, Randhawa HS, Kowshik T, Chowdhary A, Chandy R. (2007). Antifungal susceptibility of Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii isolates from decayed wood of trunk hollows of Ficus religiosa and Syzygium cumini trees in north-western India. J Antimicrob Chemother, 60, 312–316.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khan ZU, Randhawa HS, Lulla M. (1982). Isolation of Blastomyces dermatitidis from the lungs of a bat, Rhinopoma hardwickei hardwickei Gray, in Delhi. Sabouraudia, 20, 137–144.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kidd SE, Bach PJ, Hingston AO, Mak S, Chow Y, MacDougall L, Kronstad JW, Bartlett KH. (2007a). Cryptococcus gattii dispersal mechanisms, British Columbia, Canada. Emerging Infect Dis, 13, 51–57.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kidd SE, Chow Y, Mak S, Bach PJ, Chen H, Hingston AO, Kronstad JW, Bartlett KH. (2007b). Characterization of environmental sources of the human and animal pathogen Cryptococcus gattii in British Columbia, Canada, and the Pacific Northwest of the United States. Appl Environ Microbiol, 73, 1433–1443.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kidd SE, Hagen F, Tscharke RL, Huynh M, Bartlett KH, Fyfe M, Macdougall L, Boekhout T, Kwon-Chung KJ, Meyer W. (2004). A rare genotype of Cryptococcus gattii caused the cryptococcosis outbreak on Vancouver Island (British Columbia, Canada). Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 101, 17258–17263.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kidd SE, Sorrell TC, Meyer W. (2003). Isolation of two molecular types of Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii from insect frass. Med Mycol, 41, 171–176.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kirk TJ, Farrel RI. (1987). Enzymatic ‘combustion’: micobial degradation of lignin. Ann Rev Microbiol, 41, 465–505.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein KR, Hall L, Deml SM, Rysavy JM, Wohlfiel SL, Wengenack NL. (2009). Identification of Cryptococcus gattii by use of L-canavanine glycine bromothymol blue medium and DNA sequencing. J Clin Microbiol, 47, 3669–3672.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumarasamy N, Solomon S, Flanigan TP, Hemalatha R, Thyagarajan SP, Mayer KH. (2003). Natural history of human immunodeficiency virus disease in southern India. Clin Infect Dis, 36, 79–85.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuroki M, Phichaichumpon C, Yasuoka A, Chiranairadul P, Chosa T, Sirinirund P, Miyazaki T, Kakeya H, Higashiyama Y, Miyazaki Y, Ishida Y, Kohno S. (2004). Environmental isolation of Cryptococcus neoformans from an endemic region of HIV-associated cryptococcosis in Thailand. Yeast, 21, 809–812.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kwon-Chung KJ, Bennett JE, Theodore TS. (1978). Cryptococcus bacillisporus sp. nov: serotype B-C of Cryptococcus neoformans. Int J Syst Bacteriol, 28, 616–620.
   Google Scholar
• Kwon-Chung KJ, Polacheck I, Bennett JE. (1982). Improved diagnostic medium for separation of Cryptococcus neoformans var. neoformans (serotypes A and D) and Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii (serotypes B and C). J Clin Microbiol, 15, 535–537.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kwon-Chung KJ, Boekhout T, Wickes BL, Fell JW. (2011). Systematic of the genus Cryptococcus and its type species of C. neoformans. In: Heitman J, Kozel TR, Kwon-Chung KJ, Perfect JR, Casadevall A (eds). Cryptococcus from human pathogen to model yeast. Washington DC: ASM Press, 3–15.
   Google Scholar
• Lagrou K, Van Eldere J, Keuleers S, Hagen F, Merckx R, Verhaegen J, Peetermans WE, Boekhout T. (2005). Zoonotic transmission of Cryptococcus neoformans from a magpie to an immunocompetent patient. J Intern Med, 257, 385–388.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazéra MS, Wanke B, Nishikawa MM. (1993). Isolation of both varieties of Cryptococcus neoformans from saprophytic sources in the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. J Med Vet Mycol, 31, 449–454.
   Google Scholar
• Lazéra MS, Cavalcanti MA, Trilles L, Nishikawa MM, Wanke B. (1998). Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii–evidence for a natural habitat related to decaying wood in a pottery tree hollow. Med Mycol, 36, 119–122.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazera MS, Salmito Cavalcanti MA, Londero AT, Trilles L, Nishikawa MM, Wanke B. (2000). Possible primary ecological niche of Cryptococcus neoformans. Med Mycol, 38, 379–383.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin X, Heitman J. (2006). The biology of the Cryptococcus neoformans species complex. Annu Rev Microbiol, 60, 69–105.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Littman ML. (1959). Cryptococcosis (torulosis). Current concepts and therapy. Am J Med, 27, 976–998.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Littman ML, Borok R. (1968). Relation of the pigeon to cryptococcosis: natural carrier state, heat resistance and survival of Cryptococcus neoformans. Mycopathol Mycol Appl, 35, 329–345.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Litvintseva AP, Kestenbaum L, Vilgalys R, Mitchell TG. (2005). Comparative analysis of environmental and clinical populations of Cryptococcus neoformans. J Clin Microbiol, 43, 556–564.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Litvintseva AP, Thakur R, Vilgalys R, Mitchell TG. (2006). Multilocus sequence typing reveals three genetic subpopulations of Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii (serotype A), including a unique population in Botswana. Genetics, 172, 2223–2238.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Litvintseva AP, Xu J, Mitchell TG. (2011). Population structure and ecology of Cryptococcus. In: Heitman J, Kozel TR, Kwon-Chung KJ, Perfect JR, Casadevall A (eds.). Cryptococcus from human pathogen to model yeast. Washington DC: ASM Press, 97–111.
   Google Scholar
• Loperena-Alvarez Y, Ren P, Li X, Schoonmaker-Bopp DJ, Bopp DJ, Ruiz A, Chaturvedi V, Rios-Velazquez C. (2010). Genotypic characterization of environmental isolates of Cryptococcus gattii from Puerto Rico. Mycopathologia, 170, 279–285.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• López-Martínez R, Castañón-Olivares LR. (1995). Isolation of Cryptococcus neoformans var. neoformans from bird droppings, fruits and vegetables in Mexico City. Mycopathologia, 129, 25–28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lugarini C, Goebel CS, Condas LA, Muro MD, de Farias MR, Ferreira FM, Vainstein MH. (2008). Cryptococcus neoformans isolated from Passerine and Psittacine bird excreta in the state of Paraná, Brazil. Mycopathologia, 166, 61–69.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mak S, Klinkenberg B, Bartlett K, Fyfe M. (2010). Ecological niche modeling of Cryptococcus gattii in British Columbia, Canada. Environ Health Perspect, 118, 653–658.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Malik R, Krockenberger MB, Cross G, Doneley R, Madill DN, Black D, McWhirter P, Rozenwax A, Rose K, Alley M, Forshaw D, Russell-Brown I, Johnstone AC, Martin P, O’Brien CR, Love DN. (2003). Avian cryptococcosis. Med Mycol, 41, 115–124.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Martinez LR, Garcia-Rivera J, Casadevall A. (2001). Cryptococcus neoformans var. neoformans (serotype D) strains are more susceptible to heat than C. neoformans var. grubii (serotype A) strains. J Clin Microbiol, 39, 3365–3367.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McTaggart LR, Lei E, Richardson SE, Hoang L, Fothergill A, Zhang SX. (2011a). Rapid identification of C. neoformans and C. gattii by matrix-asssisted laser desorption ionization-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). J Clin Microbiol, 49, 3050–3053.
   Google Scholar
• McTaggart LR, Richardson SE, Seah C, Hoang L, Fothergill A, Zhang SX. (2011b). Rapid identification of Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii, C. neoformans var. neoformans, and C. gattii using rapid biochemical tests, differential media, and DNA sequencing. J Clin Microbiol, 49, 2522–2527.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Meyer W, Aanensen DM, Boekhout T, Cogliati M, Diaz MR, Esposto MC, Fisher M, Gilgado F, Hagen F, Kaocharoen S, Litvintseva AP, Mitchell TG, Simwami SP, Trilles L, Viviani MA, Kwon-Chung KJ. (2009). Consensus multi-locus sequence typing scheme for Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii. Med Mycol, 47, 561–570.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer W, Castañeda A, Jackson S, Huynh M, Castañeda E; IberoAmerican Cryptococcal Study Group. (2003). Molecular typing of IberoAmerican Cryptococcus neoformans isolates. Emerging Infect Dis, 9, 189–195.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer W, Marszewska K, Amirmostofian M, Igreja RP, Hardtke C, Methling K, Viviani MA, Chindamporn A, Sukroongreung S, John MA, Ellis DH, Sorrell TC. (1999). Molecular typing of global isolates of Cryptococcus neoformans var. neoformans by polymerase chain reaction fingerprinting and randomly amplified polymorphic DNA-a pilot study to standardize techniques on which to base a detailed epidemiological survey. Electrophoresis, 20, 1790–1799.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Min KH, Kwon-Chung KJ. (1986). The biochemical basis for the distinction between the two Cryptococcus neoformans varieties with CGB medium. Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg A, 261, 471–480.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Misra VC. (1978). Studies on yeast-like fungi with special reference to their association with certain food-stuffs. Ph.D. thesis, University of Delhi, Delhi, India.
   Google Scholar
• Misra VC, Randhawa HS. (2000). Occurrence and significance of Cryptococcus neoformans in vegetables and fruits. Indian J Chest Dis Allied Sci, 42, 317–321.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Montenegro H, Paula CR. (2000). Environmental isolation of Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii and C. neoformans var. neoformans in the city of São Paulo, Brazil. Med Mycol, 38, 385–390.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mussa AY. (1997). Studies on respiratory mycotic disease agents with special reference to their natural habitats. Ph.D. thesis, University of Delhi, Delhi, India.
   Google Scholar
• Mussa AY, Randhawa HS, Khan ZU. (2000). Decaying wood as a natural habitat of melanin-forming (Mel+) variant of Cryptococcus laurentii. Curr Sci, 79, 1471–1477.
   Google Scholar
• New York State Department of Health. (2005). Mycology critique, Mycology Proficiency Testing Program, May 2005. New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY.
   Google Scholar
• Nielsen K, De Obaldia AL, Heitman J. (2007). Cryptococcus neoformans mates on pigeon guano: implications for the realized ecological niche and globalization. Eukaryot Cell, 6, 949–959.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nosanchuk JD, Rudolph J, Rosas AL, Casadevall A. (1999). Evidence that Cryptococcus neoformans is melanized in pigeon excreta: implications for pathogenesis. Infect Immun, 67, 5477–5479.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nosanchuk JD, Shoham S, Fries BC, Shapiro DS, Levitz SM, Casadevall A. (2000). Evidence of zoonotic transmission of Cryptococcus neoformans from a pet cockatoo to an immunocompromised patient. Ann Intern Med, 132, 205–208.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Padhye AA, Thirumalachar MJ. (1967). Isolation of Trichophyton simii and Cryptococcus neoformans from soil in India. Hindustan Antibiot Bull, 9, 155–157.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Padhye AA, Chakrabarti A, Chander J, Kaufman L. (1993). Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii in India. J Med Vet Mycol, 31, 165–168.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Paliwal DK, Randhawa HS. (1978). Evaluation of a simplified Guizotia abyssinica seed medium for differentiation of Cryptococcus neoformans. J Clin Microbiol, 7, 346–348.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pal M, Khan ZU, Randhawa HS. (1979). Observation on niger seed creatinine agar as a selective medium for Cryptococcus neoformans. Indian J Microbiol, 19, 19–22.
   Google Scholar
• Pal M, Mehrotra BS. (1985). Studies on the isolation of Cryptococcus neoformans from fruits and vegetables. Mykosen, 28, 200–205.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Park BJ, Wannemuehler KA, Marston BJ, Govender N, Pappas PG, Chiller TM. (2009). Estimation of the current global burden of cryptococcal meningitis among persons living with HIV/AIDS. AIDS, 23, 525–530.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pfaller MA, Messer SA, Boyken L, Rice C, Tendolkar S, Hollis RJ, Doern GV, Diekema DJ. (2005). Global trends in the antifungal susceptibility of Cryptococcus neoformans (1990 to 2004). J Clin Microbiol, 43, 2163–2167.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pfeiffer TJ, Ellis DH. (1992). Environmental isolation of Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii from Eucalyptus tereticornis. J Med Vet Mycol, 30, 407–408.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Randhawa HS, Kowshik T, Chowdhary A, Prakash A, Khan ZU, Xu J. (2011). Seasonal variations in the prevalence of Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii and Cryptococcus gattii in decayed wood inside trunk hollows of diverse tree species in north-western India: a retrospective study. Med Mycol, 49, 320–323.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Randhawa HS, Kowshik T, Chowdhary A, Preeti Sinha K, Khan ZU, Sun S, Xu J. (2008). The expanding host tree species spectrum of Cryptococcus gattii and Cryptococcus neoformans and their isolations from surrounding soil in India. Med Mycol, 46, 823–833.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Randhawa HS, Kowshik T, Khan ZU. (2005). Efficacy of swabbing versus a conventional technique for isolation of Cryptococcus neoformans from decayed wood in tree trunk hollows. Med Mycol, 43, 67–71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Randhawa HS, Kowshik T, Khan ZU. (2003). Decayed wood of Syzygium cumini and Ficus religiosa living trees in Delhi/New Delhi metropolitan area as natural habitat of Cryptococcus neoformans. Med Mycol, 41, 199–209.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Randhawa HS, Kowshik T, Preeti Sinha K, Chowdhary A, Khan ZU, Yan Z, Xu J, Kumar A. (2006). Distribution of Cryptococcus gattii and Cryptococcus neoformans in decayed trunk wood of Syzygium cumini trees in north-western India. Med Mycol, 44, 623–630.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Randhawa HS, Mussa AY, Khan ZU. (2001). Decaying wood in tree trunk hollows as a natural substrate for Cryptococcus neoformans and other yeast-like fungi of clinical interest. Mycopathologia, 151, 63–69.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Randhawa HS, Paliwal DK. (1979). Survey of Cryptococcus neoformans in the respiratory tract of patients with bronchopulmonary disorders and in the air. Sabouraudia, 17, 399–404.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rosas AL, Casadevall A. (2001). Melanization decreases the susceptibility of Cryptococcus neoformans to enzymatic degradation. Mycopathologia, 151, 53–56.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruiz A, Fromtling RA, Bulmer GS. (1981). Distribution of Cryptococcus neoformans in a natural site. Infect Immun, 31, 560–563.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salkin IF, Hurd NJ. (1982). New medium for differentiation of Cryptococcus neoformans serotype pairs. J Clin Microbiol, 15, 169–171.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanfelice F. (1894). Contributo alla morfologia e biologia dei blastomiceti che si sviluppano nei succhi di alcuni frutti. Ann Igiene, 4, 463–495.
   Google Scholar
• Sethi KK, Randhawa HS. (1968). Survival of Cryptococcus neoformans in the gastrointestinal tract of pigeons following ingestion of the organism. J Infect Dis, 118, 135–138.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sethi KK, Randhawa HS, Abraham S, Mishra SK, Damodaran VN. (1966). Occurrence of Cryptococcus neoformans in pigeon excreta in Delhi. Indian J Chest Dis, 8, 207–210.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shaw CE, Kapica L. (1972). Production of diagnostic pigment by phenoloxidase activity of Cryptococcus neoformans. Appl Microbiol, 24, 824–830.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Simwami SP, Khayhan K, Henk DA, Aanensen DM, Boekhout T, Hagen F, Brouwer AE, Harrison TS, Donnelly CA, Fisher MC. (2011). Low diversity Cryptococcus neoformans variety grubii multilocus sequence types from Thailand are consistent with an ancestral African origin. PLoS Pathog, 7, e1001343.
   Google Scholar
• Soares MC, Paula CR, Dias AL, Caseiro MM, Costa SO. (2005). Environmental strains of Cryptococcus neoformans variety grubii in the city of Santos, SP, Brazil. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo, 47, 31–36.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Staib F. (1962). Cryptococcus neoformans und Guizotia abyssinica (syn G. oliefera). Farb reaktion fur C. neoformans. Zentralbl Hyg, 148, 466–475.
   Google Scholar
• Staib F, Breyer D, Kulins G, Senska M, Wulkow R. (1972a). [Hay as a nutrient substratum for Cryptococcus neoformans]. Zentralbl Bakteriol Orig A, 222, 407–414.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Staib F, Thielke C, Randhawa HS, Senska M, Kulins G. (1972b). Colonisation of dead plants by Cryptococcus neoformans. Zentralbl Bakteriol Orig A, 222, 115–125.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Staib F, Randhawa HS, Senska M, Blisse A, Wulkow R. (1973). [Peach and peach juice as a nutrient substratum for Cryptococcus neoformans with comments on some observations of F. Sanfelice (1894)]. Zentralbl Bakteriol Orig A, 224, 120–127.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Staib F, Senska M, Wulkow R. (1974). [Apple and apple-juice as a nutrient substratum for Cryptococcus neoformans (author’s transl)]. Zentralbl Bakteriol Parasitenkd Infektionskr Hyg, 129, 286–293.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stewart RA, Meyer KF. (1932). Isolation of Coccidoides immitis (Stiles) from the soil. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med, 29, 937–938.
   Google Scholar
• Swinne-Desgain D. (1975). Cryptococcus neoformans of saprophytic origin. Sabouraudia, 13, 303–308.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Swinne D, Kayembe K, Niyimi M. (1986). Isolation of saprophytic Cryptococcus neoformans var. neoformans in Kinshasa, Zaïre. Ann Soc Belg Med Trop, 66, 57–61.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Swinne D, Taelman H, Batungwanayo J, Bigirankana A, Bogaerts J. (1994). [Ecology of Cryptococcus neoformans in central Africa]. Med Trop (Mars), 54, 53–55.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Thompson GR 3rd, Wiederhold NP, Fothergill AW, Vallor AC, Wickes BL, Patterson TF. (2009). Antifungal susceptibilities among different serotypes of Cryptococcus gattii and Cryptococcus neoformans. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 53, 309–311.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thurson CF. (1994). The structure and function of fungal laccases. Microbiology, 140, 19–26.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UNAIDS. (2006). 2006 Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic. [Online] Available at: http://data.unaids.org/pub/GlobalReport/2006/2006_gr_ch02_en.pdf. Accessed on 4 May 2011.
   Google Scholar
• Vajpayee M, Kanswal S, Seth P, Wig N. (2003). Spectrum of opportunistic infections and profile of CD4+ counts among AIDS patients in North India. Infection, 31, 336–340.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vanbreuseghem R, Takashio M. (1970). An atypical strain of Cryptococcus neoformans (San Felice) Vuillemin 1894. II. Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii var. nov. Ann Soc Belges Med Trop Parasitol Mycol, 50, 695–702.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Williamson PR. (1994). Biochemical and molecular characterization of the diphenol oxidase of Cryptococcus neoformans: identification as a laccase. J Bacteriol, 176, 656–664.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu J. (2010). Microbial Population Genetics. Norwich, CT, USA: Horizon Bioscience.
   Google Scholar