6,395
Views
326
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Article

Vulvovaginal candidiasis: Epidemiology, microbiology and risk factors

, , , , &
Pages 905-927 | Received 29 Apr 2015, Accepted 03 Sep 2015, Published online: 21 Dec 2015

References

  • Abasiattai AM, Bassey EA, Udoma EJ. (2008). Profile of intrauterine contraceptive device acceptors at the University of Uyo Teaching Hospital, Uyo, Nigeria. Ann Afr Med 7:1–5
  • Achkar JM, Fries BC. (2010). Candida infections of the genitourinary tract. Clin Microbiol Rev 23:253–73
  • Agarwal K, Sharma U, Acharya V. (2004). Microbial and cytopathological study of intrauterine contraceptive device users. Indian J Med Sci 58:394–9
  • Ahmad A, Khan AU. (2009). Prevalence of Candida species and potential risk factors for vulvovaginal candidiasis in Aligarh, India. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 144:68–71
  • Ako-Nai AK, Kassim OO, Adeniram MO, Taiwo O. (1993). A study of urinary tract infections at Ile-Ife, Nigeria. East Afr Med J 70:10–14
  • Alves CT, Silva S, Pereira L, et al. (2014a). Effect of progesterone on Candida albicans vaginal pathogenicity. Int J Med Microbiol 304:1011–17
  • Alves CT, Wei XQ, Silva S, et al. (2014b). Candida albicans promotes invasion and colonisation of Candida glabrata in a reconstituted human vaginal epithelium. J Infect 69:396–407
  • Amouri I, Sellami H, Borji N, et al. (2011). Epidemiological survey of vulvovaginal candidosis in Sfax, Tunisia. Mycoses 54:499–505
  • Anderson J, Cundiff L, Schnars B, et al. (1989). Hypha formation in the white-opaque transition of Candida albicans. Infect Immun 57:458–67
  • Anderson JM, Soll DR. (1987). Unique phenotype of opaque cells in the white-opaque transition of Candida albicans. J Bacteriol 169:5579–88
  • Anderson MR. (2004). Evaluation of vaginal complaints. JAMA 291:1368–79
  • Andrioli JL, Oliveira GSA, Barreto CS, et al. (2009). Frequência de leveduras em fluido vaginal de mulheres com e sem suspeita clínica de candidíase vulvovaginal. Rev Bras Ginecol e Obs 31:300–4
  • Antonio MAD, Hawes SE, Hillier SL. (1999). The identification of vaginal Lactobacillus species and the demographic and microbiologic characteristics of women colonized by these species. J Infect Dis 180:1950–6
  • Apalata T, Longo-Mbenza B, Sturm A, et al. (2014). Factors associated with symptomatic vulvovaginal candidiasis: a study among women attending a primary healthcare clinic in Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa. Ann Med Health Sci Res 4:410–16
  • Ascioglu S, Rex JH, de Pauw B, et al. (2002). Defining opportunistic invasive fungal infections in immunocompromised patients with cancer and hematopoietic stem cell transplants: an international consensus. Clin Infect Dis 34:7–14
  • Auger P, Joly J. (1980). Microbial flora associated with Candida albicans vulvovaginitis. Obstet Gynecol 55:397–401
  • Auler ME, Morreira D, Rodrigues FF, et al. (2010). Biofilm formation on intrauterine devices in patients with recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. Med Mycol 48:211–16
  • Babovic-Vuksanovic D, Snow K, Ten RM. (1999). Mannose-binding lectin (MBL) deficiency. Variant alleles in a midwestern population of the United States. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 82:134–8
  • Babula O, Lazdane G, Kroica J, et al. (2005). Frequency of Interleukin-4 (IL-4) -589 gene polymorphism and vaginal concentrations of IL-4, nitric oxide, and mannose-binding lectin in women with recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. Clin Infect Dis 40:1258–62
  • Babula O, Lazdane G, Kroica J, et al. (2003). Relation between recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis, vaginal concentrations of mannose-binding lectin, and a mannose-binding lectin gene polymorphism in Latvian women. Clin Infect Dis 37:733–7
  • Barbone F, Austin H, Louv WC, Alexander WJ. (1990). A follow-up study of methods of contraception, sexual activity, and rates of trichomoniasis, candidiasis, and bacterial vaginosis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 163:510–14
  • Barnes PJ. (2011). Glucocorticosteroids: current and future directions. Br J Pharmacol 163:29–43
  • Barousse MM, Espinosa T, Dunlap K, Fidel PL. (2005). Vaginal epithelial cell anti-Candida albicans activity is associated with protection against symptomatic vaginal candidiasis. Infect Immun 73:7765–7
  • Barousse MM, Van Der Pol BJ, Fortenberry D, et al. (2004). Vaginal yeast colonisation, prevalence of vaginitis, and associated local immunity in adolescents. Sex Transm Infect 80:48–53
  • Bauters TG, Dhont MA, Temmerman MI, Nelis HJ. (2002). Prevalence of vulvovaginal candidiasis and susceptibility to fluconazole in women. Am. J Obstet Gynecol 187:569–74
  • Beigi RH., Meyn LA, Moore DM, et al. (2004). Vaginal yeast colonization in nonpregnant women: a longitudinal study. Obstet Gynecol 104:926–30
  • Bertholf ME, Stafford MJ. (1983). Colonization of Candida albicans in vagina, rectum, and mouth. J Fam Pract 16:919–24
  • Bluestein D, Rutledge C, Lumsden L. (1991). Predicting the occurrence of antibiotic-induced candidal vaginitis (AICV). Fam Pract Res J 11:319–26
  • Boatto HF, de Moraes MS, Machado AP, et al. (2007). Correlação entre os resultados laboratoriais e os sinais e sintomas clínicos das pacientes com candidíase vulvovaginal e relevância dos parceiros sexuais na manutenção da infecção em São Paulo, Brasil. Rev Bras Ginecol e Obs 29:80–4
  • Bohannon NJV. (1998). Treatment of vulvovaginal candidiasis in patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care 21:451–6
  • Boris S, Barbés C. (1998). Adherence of human vaginal lactobacilli to vaginal epithelial cells and interaction with uropathogens. Infect Immun 66:1985–9
  • Boris S, Barbés C. (2000). Role played by lactobacilli in controlling the population of vaginal pathogens. Microbes Infect 2:543–6
  • Bradford LL, Ravel J, Bruno V. (2013). Understanding vulvovaginal candidiasis through a community genomics approach. Curr Fungal Infect Rep 7:126–31
  • Bradshaw CS, Morton AN, Garland SM, et al. (2005). Higher-risk behavioral practices associated with bacterial vaginosis compared with vaginal candidiasis. Obstet Gynecol 106:105–14
  • Bradshaw CS, Morton AN, Hocking J, et al. (2006). High recurrence rates of bacterial vaginosis over 12 months following oral metronidazole and factors associated with recurrence. J Infect Dis 193:1478–86
  • Brockert, PJ, Lachke SA, Srikantha T, et al. (2003). Phenotypic switching and mating type switching of Candida glabrata at sites of colonization. Infect Immun 71:7109–18
  • Brown GD. (2006). Dectin-1: a signalling non-TLR pattern-recognition receptor. Nat Rev Immunol 6:33–43
  • Brown GD, Gordon S. (2005). Immune recognition of fungal beta-glucans. Cell Microbiol 7:471–9
  • Buchta V, Spacek J. (2004). Microbiological findings in patients with recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis in the Hradec Kralove Faculty Hospital 1995-2002. Ceska Gynekol 69:7–14 (in Czech)
  • Burchard EG, Silverman EK, Rosenwasser LJ, et al. (1999). Association between a sequence variant in the IL-4 gene promoter and FEV 1 in asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 160:919–22
  • Butler G, Rasmussen MD, Lin MF, et al. (2009). Evolution of pathogenicity and sexual reproduction in eight Candida genomes. Nature 459:657–62
  • Carvalho LP., Bacellar O, Neves N, et al. (2002). Downregulation of IFN-γ production in patients with recurrent vaginal candidiasis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 109:102–5
  • Carvalho RJV de, Cunha CM, Silva DA, et al. (2003). IgA, IgE e subclasses de IgG anti-Candida albicans no soro e lavado vaginal de pacientes com candidíase vulvovaginal. Rev Assoc Med Bras 49:434–8
  • Cassone A, De Bernardis F, Mondello F, et al. (1987). Evidence for a correlation between proteinase secretion and vulvovaginal candidosis. J Infect Dis 156:777–83
  • Cassone A, De Bernardis F, Santoni G. (2007). Anticandidal immunity and vaginitis: novel opportunities for immune intervention. Infect Immun 75:4675–86
  • Cenci E, Romani L, Mencacci A, et al. (1993). Interleukin-4 and interleukin-10 inhibit nitric oxide-dependent macrophage killing of Candida albicans. Eur J Immunol 23:1034–8
  • Cetin M, Ocak S, Gungoren A, Hakverdi AU. (2007). Distribution of Candida species in women with vulvovaginal symptoms and their association with different ages and contraceptive methods. Scand J Infect Dis 39:584–8
  • Chaffin WL. (2008). Candida albicans cell wall proteins. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 72:495–544
  • Chaim W, Foxman B, Sobel JD. (1997). Association of recurrent vaginal candidiasis and secretory ABO and Lewis phenotype. J Infect Dis 176:828–30
  • Chakrabarti A, Nayak N, Talwar P. (1991). In vitro proteinase production by Candida species. Mycopathologia 114:163–8
  • Chassot F, Negri MF, Svidzinski AE, et al. (2008). Can intrauterine contraceptive devices be a Candida albicans reservoir? Contraception 77:355–9
  • Cheng G, Wozniak K, Wallig MA, et al. (2005). Comparison between Candida albicans agglutinin-like sequence gene expression patterns in human clinical specimens and models of vaginal candidiasis. Infect Immun 73:1656–63
  • Cheng G, Yeater KM, Hoyer LL. (2006). Cellular and molecular biology of Candida albicans estrogen response. Eukaryot Cell 5:180–91
  • Cormack BP, Ghori N, Falkow S. (1999). An adhesin of the yeast pathogen Candida glabrata mediating adherence to human epithelial cells. Science 285:578–82
  • Corsello S, Spinillo A, Osnengo G, et al. (2003). An epidemiological survey of vulvovaginal candidiasis in Italy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 110:66–72
  • Cotch MF, Hillier SL, Gibbs RS, Eschenbach DA. (1998). Epidemiology and outcomes associated with moderate to heavy Candida colonization during pregnancy. Vaginal infections and prematurity study group. Am J Obstet Gynecol 178:374–80
  • Cremel M. (2005). Characterization of CCL20 secretion by human epithelial vaginal cells: involvement in Langerhans cell precursor attraction. J Leukoc Biol 78:158–66
  • Cribby S, Taylor M, Reid G. (2008). Vaginal microbiota and the use of probiotics. Interdiscip Perspect Infect Dis 2008:1–9
  • Czeizel AE, Fladung B, Vargha P. (2004). Preterm birth reduction after clotrimazole treatment during pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 116:157–63
  • Czeizel AE, Rockenbauer M. (1999). A lower rate of preterm birth after clotrimazole therapy during pregnancy. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 13:58–64
  • Dan M, Kaneti N, Levin D, et al. (2003). Vaginitis in a gynecologic practice in Israel: causes and risk factors. Isr Med Assoc J 5:629–32
  • Dan M, Segal R, Marder V, Leibovitz A. (2006). Candida colonization of the vagina in elderly residents of a long-term-care hospital. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 25:394–6
  • Davey ME, O’toole GA. (2000). Microbial biofilms: from ecology to molecular genetics. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 64:847–67
  • De Bernardis F, Agatensi L, Ross IK, et al. (1990). Evidence for a role for secreted aspartate proteinase of Candida albicans in vulvovaginal candidiasis. J Infect Dis 161:1276–83
  • De Bernardis F, Muhlschlegel FA, Cassone A, Fonzi WA. (1998). The pH of the host niche controls gene expression in and virulence of Candida albicans. Infect Immun 66:3317–25
  • De Leon EM, Jacober SJ, Sobel JD, Foxman B. (2002). Prevalence and risk factors for vaginal Candida colonization in women with type 1 and type 2 diabetes. BMC Infect Dis 2:1
  • Demirezen S, Dirlik OO, Beksaç MS. (2005). The association of Candida infection with intrauterine contraceptive device. Cent Eur J Public Health 13:32–4
  • Dennerstein GJ, Ellis DH. (2001). Oestrogen, glycogen and vaginal candidiasis. Aust New Zeal J Obstet Gynaecol 41:326–8
  • Dignani M, Solomkin J, Anaissie E. (2009). Candida. In: Anaissie E, McGinnis M, Pfaller M, eds. Clinical mycology. USA: Elsevier, 197–231
  • Dominic RM, Shenoy S, Baliga S. (2007). Candida biofilms in medical devices: evolving trends. Kathmandu Univ Med J 5:431–6
  • Donlan RM. (2002). Biofilms: microbial life on surfaces. Emerg Infect Dis 8:881–90
  • Donlan RM, Costerton JW. (2002). Biofilms: survival mechanisms of clinically relevant microorganisms. Clin Microbiol Rev 15:167–93
  • Douglas LJ. (2003). Candida biofilms and their role in infection. Trends Microbiol 11:30–6
  • Duerr A, Heilig CM, Meikle SF, Cu-Uvin S, et al. (2003). Incident and persistent vulvovaginal candidiasis among human immunodeficiency virus-infected women: risk factors and severity. Obstet Gynecol 101:548–56
  • Eckert L. (1998). Vulvovaginal candidiasis: clinical manifestations, risk factors, management algorithm. Obstet Gynecol 92:757–65
  • Egbe CA, Onwufor UC, Omoregie R, Enabulele OI. (2011). Female reproductive tract infections among vaginal contraceptive users in Benin city, Nigeria. Genomic Med Biomarkers, Health Sci 3:49–52
  • Eschenbach D. (1986). Lower genital tract infections. In: Galask RP, Larsen B, eds. Infectious diseases in the female patient. New York: Springer, 163–86
  • Esim BE, Kars B, Karsidag AY, et al. (2010). Diagnosis of vulvovaginitis: comparison of clinical and microbiological diagnosis. Arch Gynecol Obstet 282:515–19
  • Essner R, Rhoades K, McBride WH, et al. (1989). IL-4 down-regulates IL-1 and TNF gene expression in human monocytes. J Immunol 142:3857–61
  • Fan SR, Liao QP, Liu XP, et al. (2008a). Vaginal allergic response in women with vulvovaginal candidiasis. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 101:27–30
  • Fan SR, Liu XP, Li JW. (2008b). Clinical characteristics of vulvovaginal candidiasis and antifungal susceptibilities of Candida species isolates among patients in southern China from 2003 to 2006. J Obstet Gynaecol Res 34:561–66
  • Faraji R, Rahimi M, Assarehzadegan M. (2012). Prevalence of vaginal candidiasis infection in women referred to Kermanshah hygienic centers, Iran in 2010. Life Sci J 9:1280–3
  • Ferrer J. (2000). Vaginal candidosis: epidemiological and etiological factors. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 71:21–7
  • Ferris HA, Kahn CR. (2012). New mechanisms of glucocorticoid-induced insulin resistance: make no bones about it. J Clin Invest 122:3854–7
  • Ferwerda B. (2009). A family with human dectin-1 deficiency and mucocutanous fungal infections. Interscience conference on antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy; San Francisco, USA.
  • Fidel PL. (2005). Immunity in vaginal candidiasis. Curr Opin Infect Dis 18:107–11
  • Fidel PL, Cutright J, Steele C. (2000). Effects of reproductive hormones on experimental vaginal candidiasis. Infect Immun 68:651–57
  • Fidel PL, Ginsburg KA, Cutright JL, et al. (1997). Vaginal-associated immunity in women with recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis: evidence for vaginal Th1-type responses following intravaginal challenge with Candida antigen. J Infect Dis 176:728–39
  • Fidel PL, Luo W, Steele C, et al. (1999a). Analysis of vaginal cell populations during experimental vaginal candidiasis. Infect Immun 67:3135–40
  • Fidel PL, Lynch M., Sobel J. (1995). Circulating CD4 and CD8 T cells have little impact on host defense against experimental vaginal candidiasis. Infect. Immun 63:2403–8
  • Fidel PL, Sobel JD. (1996). Immunopathogenesis of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. Clin Microbiol Rev 9:335–48
  • Fidel PL, Vazquez JA, Sobel JD. (1999b). Candida glabrata: review of epidemiology, pathogenesis, and clinical disease with comparison to C. albicans. Clin Microbiol Rev 12:80–96
  • Fidel PL, Wolf NA, KuKuruga MA. (1996). T lymphocytes in the murine vaginal mucosa are phenotypically distinct from those in the periphery. Infect Immun 64:3793–9
  • Fleetwood L, Landgren BM, Eneroth P. (1984). Changes in soluble proteins in cervical mucus during midcycle in normally menstruating women. Gynecol Obstet Invest 18:27–33
  • Foxman B. (1990). The epidemiology of vulvovaginal candidiasis: risk factors. Am J Public Health 80:329–31
  • Foxman B, Barlow R, D’Arcy H, et al. (2000). Candida vaginitis: self-reported incidence and associated costs. Sex Transm Dis 27:230–5
  • Fukushima C, Matsuse H, Tomari S, et al. (2003). Oral candidiasis associated with inhaled corticosteroid use: comparison of fluticasone and beclomethasone. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 90:646–51
  • Fulurija A, Ashman RB, Papadimitriou JM. (1996). Neutrophil depletion increases susceptibility to systemic and vaginal candidiasis in mice, and reveals differences between brain and kidney in mechanisms of host resistance. Microbiology 142:3487–96
  • Ganz T. (2003). Defensins: antimicrobial peptides of innate immunity. Nat Rev Immunol 3:710–20
  • Geiger AM, Foxman B. (1996). Risk factors for vulvovaginal candidiasis: a case-control study among university students. Epidemiology 7:182–7
  • Ghannoum MA. (2000). Potential role of phospholipases in virulence and fungal pathogenesis. Clin Microbiol Rev 13:122–43
  • Gibbs RS. (1987). Microbiology of the female genital tract. Am J Obstet Gynecol 156:491–5
  • Gilmore BJ, Retsinas EM, Lorenz JS, Hostetter MK. (1988). An iC3b receptor on Candida albicans: structure, function, and correlates for pathogenicity. J Infect Dis 157:38–46
  • Giraldo PC, Babula O, Gonçalves AK, et al. (2007). Mannose-binding lectin gene polymorphism, vulvovaginal candidiasis, and bacterial vaginosis. Obstet Gynecol 109:1123–8
  • Giraldo, PC, do Amaral RL, Gonçalves AK, et al. (2005). Influência da freqüência de coitos vaginais e da prática de duchas higiênicas sobre o equilíbrio da microbiota vaginal. Rev Bras Ginecol e Obs 27:257–62
  • Goswami D, Goswami R, Banerjee U, et al. (2006). Pattern of Candida species isolated from patients with diabetes mellitus and vulvovaginal candidiasis and their response to single dose oral fluconazole therapy. J Infect 52:111–17
  • Goswami R, Dadhwal V, Tejaswi S, et al. (2000). Species-specific prevalence of vaginal candidiasis among patients with diabetes mellitus and its relation to their glycaemic status. J Infect 41:162–6
  • Gough PM, Warnock DW, Richardson MD, et al. (1984). IgA and IgG antibodies to Candida albicans in the genital tract secretions of women with or without vaginal candidosis. Sabouraudia 22:265–71
  • Gow NAR, Netea MG, Munro CA, et al. (2007). Immune recognition of Candida albicans beta-glucan by dectin-1. J Infect Dis 196:1565–71
  • Grigoriou O, Baka S, Makrakis E, et al. (2006). Prevalence of clinical vaginal candidiasis in a university hospital and possible risk factors. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 126:121–5
  • Gunther LSA, Martins HP, Gimenes F, et al. (2014). Prevalence of Candida albicans and non-albicans isolates from vaginal secretions: comparative evaluation of colonization, vaginal candidiasis and recurrent vaginal candidiasis in diabetic and non-diabetic women. São Paulo Med J 132:116–20
  • Guyton A, Hall J. (2006). Fisiologia feminina antes da gravidez e hormônios femininos. In: Guyton A, Hall J, eds. Tratado de Fisiologia Médica. Rio de Janeiro: Elsevier, 1011–26
  • Guzel AB, Ilkit M, Akar T, et al. (2011). Evaluation of risk factors in patients with vulvovaginal candidiasis and the value of chromID Candida agar versus CHROMagar Candida for recovery and presumptive identification of vaginal yeast species. Med Mycol 49:16–25
  • Harriott MM, Lilly EA, Rodriguez TE, et al. (2010). Candida albicans forms biofilms on the vaginal mucosa. Microbiology 156:3635–44
  • Hazen KC. (1989). Participation of yeast cell surface hydrophobicity in adherence of Candida albicans to human epithelial cells. Infect Immun 57:1894–900
  • Hellberg D, Zdolsek B, Nilsson S, Mårdh PA. (1995). Sexual behavior of women with repeated episodes of vulvovaginal candidiasis. Eur J Epidemiol 11:575–9
  • Hillier SL, Krohn MA, Klebanoff SJ, Eschenbach DA. (1992). The relationship of hydrogen peroxide-producing lactobacilli to bacterial vaginosis and genital microflora in pregnant women. Obstet Gynecol 79:369–73
  • Hilton E, Chandrasekaran V, Rindos P, Isenberg HD. (1995). Association of recurrent candidal vaginitis with inheritance of Lewis blood group antigens. J Infect Dis 172:1616–19
  • Hodoglugil NN, Aslan D, Bertan M. (2000). Intrauterine device use and some issues related to sexually transmitted disease screening and occurrence. Contraception 61:359–64
  • Holanda AAR de, Fernandes AC, Bezerra CM, et al. (2007). Candidíase vulvovaginal: sintomatologia, fatores de risco e colonização anal concomitante. Rev Bras Ginecol Obs 29:3–9
  • Holland J, Young ML, Lee O, Chen SCA. (2003). Vulvovaginal carriage of yeasts other than Candida albicans. Sex Transm Infect 79:249–50
  • Hooton TM, Roberts PL, Stamm WE. (1994). Effects of recent sexual activity and use of a diaphragm on the vaginal microflora. Clin Infect Dis 19:274–8
  • Hostetter MK. (1990). Handicaps to host defense. Effects of hyperglycemia on C3 and Candida albicans. Diabetes 39:271–5
  • Hostetter MK. (1994). Adhesins and ligands involved in the interaction of Candida spp. with epithelial and endothelial surfaces. Clin Microbiol Rev 7:29–42
  • Hostetter MK, Lorenz JS, Preus L, Kendrick KE. (1990). The iC3b receptor on Candida albicans: subcellular localization and modulation of receptor expression by glucose. J Infect Dis 161:761–8
  • Hoyer LL, Fundyga R, Hecht JE, et al. (2001). Characterization of agglutinin-like sequence genes from non-albicans Candida and phylogenetic analysis of the ALS family. Genetics 157:1555–67
  • Hoyer LL, Green CB, Oh SH, Zhao X. (2008). Discovering the secrets of the Candida albicans agglutinin-like sequence (ALS) gene family-a sticky pursuit. Med Mycol 46:1–15
  • Hube B, Sanglard D, Odds FC, et al. (1997). Disruption of each of the secreted aspartyl proteinase genes SAP1, SAP2, and SAP3 of Candida albicans attenuates virulence. Infect Immun 65:3529–38
  • Ip WK, Lau YL. (2004). Role of mannose-binding lectin in the innate defense against Candida albicans: enhancement of complement activation, but lack of opsonic function, in phagocytosis by human dendritic cells. J Infect Dis 190:632–40
  • Jabeen R, Siddiqi I. (2014). Frequency of vaginal candidiasis amongst pregnant women and effect of predisposing factors. Int Ophthalmol Updat 12:140–3
  • Jackson ST, Mullings AM, Rainford L, Miller A. (2005). The epidemiology of mycotic vulvovaginitis and the use of antifungal agents in suspected mycotic vulvovaginitis and its implications for clinical practice. West Indian Med J 54:192–5
  • Jain N, Kohli R, Cook E, et al. (2007). Biofilm formation by and antifungal susceptibility of Candida isolates from urine. Appl Environ Microbiol 73:1697–703
  • Jayatilake JA, Samaranayake YH, Cheung LK, Samaranayake LP. (2006). Quantitive evaluation of tissue invasion by wild type, hyphal and SAP mutants i recosntiyued human oral epithelium. J Oral Pathol Med 35:481–91
  • Jouault T, Behi MEA-E, Martinez-Esparza M, et al. (2006). Specific recognition of Candida albicans by macrophages requires galectin-3 to discriminate Saccharomyces cerevisiae and needs association with TLR2 for signaling. J Immunol 177:4679–87
  • Kalo A, Segal E. (1988). Interaction of Candida albicans with genital mucosa: effect of sex hormones on adherence of yeasts in vitro. Can J Microbiol 34:224–28
  • Kalo-Klein A, Witkin SS. (1989). Candida albicans: cellular immune system interactions during different stages of the menstrual cycle. Am J Obstet Gynecol 161:1132–36
  • Kalo-Klein A, Witkin SS. (1990). Prostaglandin E2 enhances and gamma interferon inhibits germ tube formation in Candida albicans. Infect Immun 58:260–2
  • Kalo-Klein A, Witkin SS. (1991). Regulation of the immune response to Candida albicans monocytes and progesterone. Am J Obstet Gynecol 164:1351–54
  • Kamath P, Pais M, Nayak MG. (2013). Risk of vaginal candidiasis among pregnant women. Int J Curr Microbiol Appl Sci 2:141–46
  • Keller MJ, Guzman E, Hazrati E, et al. (2007). PRO 2000 elicits a decline in genital tract immune mediators without compromising intrinsic antimicrobial activity. AIDS 21:467–76
  • King AE, Critchley HO, Kelly RW. (2000). Presence of secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor in human endometrium and first trimester decidua suggests an antibacterial protective role. Mol Hum Reprod 6:191–6
  • King AE, Fleming DC, Critchley HO, Kelly RM. (2003). Differential expression of the natural antimicrobials, beta-defensins 3 and 4, in human endometrium. J Reprod Immunol 59:1–16
  • King RD, Lee JC, Morris AL. (1980). Adherence of Candida albicans and other Candida species to mucosal epithelial cells. Infect Immun 27:667–74
  • Kumamoto CA, Vinces MD. (2005). Contributions of hyphae and hypha-co-regulated genes to Candida albicans virulence. Cell Microbiol 7:1546–54
  • Lal P, Agarwal V, Pruthi P, et al. (2008). Biofilm formation by Candida albicans isolated from intrauterine devices. Indian J Microbiol 48:438–44
  • Lee NC, Rubin GL, Ory HW, Burkman RT. (1983). Type of intrauterine device and the risk of pelvic inflammatory disease. Obstet Gynecol 62:1–6
  • Lev-Sagie A, Prus D, Linhares IM, et al. (2009). Polymorphism in a gene coding for the inflammasome component NALP3 and recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis in women with vulvar vestibulitis syndrome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 200:303.e1–6
  • Lian CH, Liu WD. (2007). Differential expression of Candida albicans secreted aspartyl proteinase in human vulvovaginal candidiasis. Mycoses 50:383–90
  • Linhares IM., Witkin SS, Miranda SD, et al. (2001). Differentiation between women with vulvovaginal symptoms who are positive or negative for Candida species by culture. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol 9:221–5
  • Lipscombe RJ, Sumiya M, Summerfield JA, Turner MW. (1995). Distinct physicochemical characteristics of human mannose binding protein expressed by individuals of differing genotype. Immunology 85:660–7
  • Liu F, Liao Q, Liu Z. (2006). Mannose-binding lectin and vulvovaginal candidiasis. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 92:43–7
  • Liu YJ. (2001). Dendritic cell subsets and lineages, and their functions in innate and adaptive immunity. Cell 106:259–62
  • Loose DS, Stevens D, Schurman DJ, Feldman D. (1983). Distribution of a corticosteroid-binding protein in Candida and other fungal genera. J Gen Microbiol 129:2379–85
  • Luo G, Samaranayake LP, Cheung BP, Tang G. (2004). Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) detection of HLP gene expression in Candida glabrata and its possible role in in vitro haemolysin production. APMIS 112:283–90
  • Lynch ME, Sobel JD. (1994). Comparative in vitro activity of antimycotic agents against pathogenic vaginal yeast isolates. J.Med Vet Mycol 32:267–74
  • Madani ND, Malloy PJ, Rodriguez-Pombo P, et al. (1994). Candida albicans estrogen-binding protein gene encodes an oxidoreductase that is inhibited by estradiol. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91:922–6
  • Mahmoudi RM, Zafarghandi S, Abbasabadi B, Tavallaee M. (2011). The epidemiology of Candida species associated with vulvovaginal candidiasis in an Iranian patient population. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 155:199–203
  • Markos AR, Wade AA, Walzman M. (1992). Oral sex and recurrent vulvo-vaginal candidiasis. Genitourin Med 68:61–2
  • McGroarty JA, Soboh F, Bruce AW, Reid G. (1990). The spermicidal compound nonoxynol-9 increases adhesion of Candida species to human epithelial cells in vitro. Infect Immun 58:2005–7
  • McNagny SE. (1999). Prescribing hormone replacement therapy for menopausal symptoms. Ann Intern Med 131:605–16
  • Medzhitov R. (2001). Toll-like receptors and innate immunity. Nat Rev Immunol 1:135–45
  • Merkerová M, Dostál J, Hradilek M, et al. (2006). Cloning and characterization of Sapp2p, the second aspartic proteinase isoenzyme from Candida parapsilosis. FEMS Yeast Res 6:1018–26
  • Miller L, Patton DL, Meier A, et al. (2000). Depomedroxyprogesterone-induced hypoestrogenism and changes in vaginal flora and epithelium. Obstet Gynecol 96:431–9
  • Mitchell H. (2004). Vaginal discharge-causes, diagnosis, and treatment. BMJ 328:1306–8
  • Mohandas V, Ballal M. (2011). Distribution of Candida species in different clinical samples and their virulence: biofilm formation, proteinase and phospholipase production: a study on hospitalized patients in southern India. J Glob Infect Dis 3:4–8
  • Mohanty S, Xess I, Hasan F, et al. (2007). Prevalence and susceptibility to fluconazole of Candida species causing vulvovaginitis. Indian J Med Res 126:216–19
  • Moragues MD, Omaetxebarria MJ, Elguezabal N, et al. (2003). A monoclonal antibody directed against a Candida albicans cell wall mannoprotein exerts three anti-C. albicans activities. Infect Immun 71:5273–9
  • Morrow B, Srikantha T, Soll DR. (1992). Transcription of the gene for a pepsinogen, PEP1, is regulated by white-opaque switching in Candida albicans. Mol Cell Biol 12:2997–3005
  • Mostad SB, Overbaugh J, DeVange DM, et al. (1997). Hormonal contraception, vitamin A deficiency, and other risk factors for shedding of HIV-1 infected cells from the cervix and vagina. Lancet 350:922–7
  • Muhlschlegel F, Fonzi W. (1997). PHR2 of Candida albicans encodes a functional homolog of the pH-regulated gene PHR1 with an inverted pattern of pH-dependent expression. Mol Cell Biol 17:5960–7
  • Naglik JR, Rodgers CA, Shirlaw PJ, et al. (2003). Differential expression of Candida albicans secreted aspartyl proteinase and phospholipase B Genes in humans correlates with active oral and vaginal infections. J Infect Dis 188:469–79
  • Neerja J, Aruna A, Paramjeet G. (2006). Significance of Candida culture in women with vulvovaginal symptoms. Obstet Gynecol 56:139–41
  • Nelson M, Wanjiru W, Margaret MW. (2013). Prevalence of vaginal candidiasis and determination of the occurrence of Candida species in pregnant women attending the antenatal clinic of Thika District Hospital, Kenya. Open J Med Microbiol 3:264–72
  • Ness RB, Hillier SL, Richter HE, et al. (2003). Why women douche and why they may or may not stop. Sex Transm Dis 30:71–4
  • Netea MG, Brown GD, Kullberg BJ, Gow NA. (2008). An integrated model of the recognition of Candida albicans by the innate immune system. Nat Rev Microbiol 6:67–78
  • Neth O, Jack DL, Dodds AW, et al. (2000). Mannose-binding lectin binds to a range of clinically relevant microorganisms and promotes complement deposition. Infect Immun 68:688–93
  • Neves NA, Carvalho LP, De Oliveira MA, et al. (2005). Association between atopy and recurrent vaginal candidiasis. Clin Exp Immunol 142:167–71
  • Niruthisard S, Roddy RE, Chutivongse S. (1991). The effects of frequent nonoxynol-9 use on the vaginal and cervical mucosa. Sex Transm Dis 18:176–9
  • Nobile CJ, Andes DR, Nett JE, et al. (2006). Critical role of Bcr1-dependent adhesins in C. albicans biofilm formation in vitro and in vivo. PLoS Pathog 2:63
  • Nohmi T, Abe S, Dobashi K, et al. (1995). Suppression of anti-Candida activity of murine neutrophils by progesterone in vitro: a possible mechanism in pregnant women’s vulnerability to vaginal candidiasis. Microbiol Immunol 39:405–9
  • North BB. (1988). Vaginal contraceptives. Effective protection from sexually transmitted diseases for women? J Reprod Med 33:307–11
  • Nwadioha SI, Egah DZ, Alao OO, Iheanacho E. (2010). Risk factors for vaginal candidiasis among women attending primary health care centers of Jos, Nigeria. J Clin Med Res 2:110–13
  • Nyirjesy P, Weitz M, Grody M, Lorber B. (1997). Over-the-counter and alternative medicines in the treatment of chronic vaginal symptoms. Obstet Gynecol 90:50–3
  • Odds FC. (2008). Secreted proteinases and Candida albicans virulence. Microbiology 154:3245–6
  • Okkers DJ, Dicks LM, Silvester M, et al. (1999). Characterization of pentocin TV35b, a bacteriocin-like peptide isolated from Lactobacillus pentosus with a fungistatic effect on Candida albicans. J Appl Microbiol 87:726–34
  • Okungbowa FI, Isikhuemhen OS, Dede AP. (2003). The distribution frequency of Candida species in the genitourinary tract among symptomatic individuals in Nigerian cities. Rev Iberoam Micol 20:60–3
  • Otero L, Palacio V, Carreño F, et al. (1998). Vulvovaginal candidiasis in female sex workers. Int J STD AIDS 9:526–30
  • Oviasogie F, Okungbowa F. (2009). Candida species amongst pregnant women in Benin city, Nigeria: effect of predisposing factors. African J Clin Exp Microbiol 10:92–8
  • Ozcan SK, Budak F, Yucesoy G, et al. (2006). Prevalence, susceptibility profile and proteinase production of yeasts causing vulvovaginitis in Turkish women. APMIS 114:139–45
  • Pál Z, Urbán E, Dósa E, et al. (2005). Biofilm formation on intrauterine devices in relation to duration of use. J Med Microbiol 54:1199–203
  • Pappas PG, Kauffman CA, Andes D, et al. (2009). Clinical practice guidelines for the management of candidiasis: 2009 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 48:503–35
  • Parewijck W, Claeys G, Thiery M, Kets H. (1988). Candidiasis in women fitted with an intrauterine contraceptive device. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 95:408–10
  • Parr M, Parr E. (1994). Mucosal immunity in the female and male reproductive tracts. In: Ogra P, Lamm M, McGhee J, et al., eds. Handbook of Mucosal Immunology. California: Academic Press, 677–89
  • Parveen N, Munir AA, Din I, Majeed R. (2008). Frequency of vaginal candidiasis in pregnant women attending routine antenatal clinic. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 18:154–7
  • Patel DA, Gillespie B, Sobel JD, et al. (2004). Risk factors for recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis in women receiving maintenance antifungal therapy: results of a prospective cohort study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 190:644–53
  • Paulitsch A, Weger W, Ginter-Hanselmayer G, et al. (2006). A 5-year (2000–2004) epidemiological survey of Candida and non-Candida yeast species causing vulvovaginal candidiasis in Graz, Austria. Mycoses 49:471–5
  • Peer AK, Hoosen AA, Seedat MA, et al. (1993). Vaginal yeast infections in diabetic women. S Afr Med J 83:727–9
  • Pellis V, De Seta F, Crovella S, et al. (2005). Mannose binding lectin and C3 act as recognition molecules for infectious agents in the vagina. Clin Exp Immunol 139:120–6
  • Pereira ID, de Souza AE, Feio RS, et al. (1996). Vulvovaginites por Candida albicans em pacientes ambulatoriais do Hospital Universitário Betina Ferro de Souza. Rev Bras Anal Clin 28:53–4
  • Petersen KA, Matthiesen F, Agger T, et al. (2006). Phase I safety, tolerability, and pharmacokinetic study of recombinant human mannan-binding lectin. J Clin Immunol 26:465–75
  • Pichová I, Pavlícková L, Dostál J, et al. (2001). Secreted aspartic proteases of Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis, Candida parapsilosis and Candida lusitaniae. Inhibition with peptidomimetic inhibitors. Eur J Biochem 268:2669–77
  • Pietrella D, Rachini A, Pines M, et al. (2011). Th17 cells and IL-17 in protective immunity to vaginal candidiasis. PLoS One 6:e22770
  • Pirotta MV, Garland SM. (2006). Genital Candida species detected in samples from women in Melbourne, Australia, before and after treatment with antibiotics. J Clin Microbiol 44:3213–17
  • Plantinga TS, van der Velden WJ, Ferwerda B, et al. (2009). Early stop polymorphism in human DECTIN-1 is associated with increased Candida colonization in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis 49:724–32
  • Powell BL, Frey CL, Drutz DJ. (1984). Identification of a 17β-estradiol binding protein in Candida albicans and Candida (Torulopsis) glabrata. Exp Mycol 8:304–13
  • Pruthi V, Al-Janabi A, Pereira BM. (2003). Characterization of biofilm formed on intrauterine devices. Indian J Med Microbiol 21:161–5
  • Psaty BM. (1993). A review of the association of estrogens and progestins with cardiovascular disease in postmenopausal women. Arch Intern Med 153:1421–7
  • Pudney J, Quayle AJ, Anderson DJ. (2005). Immunological microenvironments in the human vagina and cervix: mediators of cellular immunity are concentrated in the cervical transformation zone. Biol Reprod 73:1253–63
  • Quayle AJ, Porter EM, Nussbaum AA, et al. (1998). Gene expression, immunolocalization, and secretion of human defensin-5 in human female reproductive tract. Am J Pathol 152:1247–58
  • Ramage G, Mowat E, Jones B, et al. (2009). Our current understanding of fungal biofilms. Crit Rev Microbiol 35:340–55
  • Ramage G, Rajendran R, Sherry L, Williams C. (2012). Fungal biofilm resistance. Int J Microbiol 2012:528521
  • Ramage G, VandeWalle K, López-Ribot JL, Wickes BL. (2002). The filamentation pathway controlled by the Efg1 regulator protein is required for normal biofilm formation and development in Candida albicans. FEMS Microbiol Lett 214:95–100
  • Ray D, Goswami R, Banerjee U, et al. (2007). Prevalence of Candida glabrata and its response to boric acid vaginal suppositories in comparison with oral fluconazole in patients with diabetes and vulvovaginal candidiasis. Diabetes care 30:312–17
  • Redding SW, Kirkpatrick WR, Saville S, et al. (2003). Multiple patterns of resistance to fluconazole in Candida glabrata isolates from a patient with oropharyngeal candidiasis receiving head and neck radiation. J Clin Microbiol 41:619–22
  • Reed BD. (1992). Risk factors for Candida vulvovaginitis. Obstet Gynecol Surv 47:551–60
  • Reed BD, Gorenflo DW, Gillespie BW, et al. (2000). Sexual behaviors and other risk factors for Candida vulvovaginitis. J Womens Health Gend Based Med 9:645–55
  • Reed BD, Zazove P, Pierson CL, et al. (2003). Candida transmission and sexual behaviors as risks for a repeat episode of Candida vulvovaginitis. J Women’s Heal 12:979–89
  • Regúlez P, Fernández JF, Moragues MD, et al. (1994). Detection of anti-Candida albicans IgE antibodies in vaginal washes from patients with acute vulvovaginal candidiasis. Gynecol Obstet Invest 37:110–14
  • Ribeiro MA, Dietze R, Paula CR, et al. (2001). Susceptibility profile of vaginal yeast isolates from Brazil. Mycopathologia 151:5–10
  • Richardson M, Rautemaa R. (2009). How the host fights against Candida infections. Front Biosci 14:4363–75
  • Richter SS, Galask RP, Messer SA, et al. (2005). Antifungal susceptibilities of Candida species causing vulvovaginitis and epidemiology of recurrent cases. J Clin Microbiol 43:2155–62
  • Rivers CA, Adaramola OO, Schwebke JR. (2011). Prevalence of bacterial vaginosis and vulvovaginal candidiasis mixed infection in a southeastern american STD clinic. Sex Transm Dis 38:672–4
  • Roddy RE, Cordero M, Cordero C, Fortney JA. (1993). A dosing study of nonoxynol-9 and genital irritation. Int J STD AIDS 4:165–70
  • Rosa MI da, Rumel D. (2004). Fatores associados à candidíase vulvovaginal: estudo exploratório. Rev Bras Ginecol Obs 26:65–70
  • Rosentul D, Delsing C, Joosten LA, et al. (2009). Polymorphism in innate immunity genes and susceptibility to recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. J Med Mycol 19:191–6
  • Rosenwasser LJ, Klemm DJ, Dresback JK, et al. (1995). Promoter polymorphisms in the chromosome 5 gene cluster in asthma and atopy. Clin Exp Allergy 25:74–8
  • Røttingen JA, Cameron DW, Garnett GP. (2001). A systematic review of the epidemiologic interactions between classic sexually transmitted diseases and HIV: how much really is known? Sex Transm Dis 28:579–97
  • Russell MW, Mestecky J. (2002). Humoral immune responses to microbial infections in the genital tract. Microbes Infect 4:667–77
  • Rylander E, Berglund AL, Krassny C, Petrini B. (2004). Vulvovaginal Candida in a young sexually active population: prevalence and association with oro-genital sex and frequent pain at intercourse. Sex Transm Infect 80:54–7
  • Safdar A, Armstrong D, Cross EW, Perlin DS. (2002). Prospective epidemiologic analysis of triazole-resistant nosocomial Candida glabrata isolated from patients at a comprehensive cancer center. Int J Infect Dis 6:198–201
  • Samaranayake YH, Dassanayake RS, Cheung BP, et al. (2006). Differential phospholipase gene expression gene expression by Candida albicans in artifical media and cultured human oral epithelium. APMIS 114:857–66
  • Saporiti AM, Gómez D, Levalle S, et al. (2001). Vaginal candidiasis: etiology and sensitivity profile to antifungal agents in clinical use. Rev Argent Microbiol 33:217–22
  • Savage DC. (1969). Microbial interference between indigenous yeast and lactobacilli in the rodent stomach. J Bacteriol 98:1278–83
  • Schaller M, Bein M, Korting HC, et al. (2003). The secreted aspartyl proteinases Sap1 and Sap2 cause tissue damage in an in vitro model of vaginal candidiasis based on reconstituted human vaginal epithelium. Infect Immun 71:3227–34
  • Schaller M, Borelli C, Korting HC, Hube B. (2005). Hydrolytic enzymes as virulence factors of Candida albicans. Mycoses 48:365–77
  • Schmid J, Rotman M, Reed B, et al. (1993). Genetic similarity of Candida albicans strains from vaginitis patients and their partners. J Clin Microbiol 31:39–46
  • Schreiber CA, Meyn LA, Creinin MD, et al. (2006). Effects of long-term use of nonoxynol-9 on vaginal flora. Obstet Gynecol 107:136–43
  • Schuman P, Capps L, Peng G, et al. (1997). Weekly fluconazole for the prevention of mucosal candidiasis in women with HIV infection. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS. Ann Intern Med 126:689–96
  • Schuman P, Sobel JD, Ohmit SE, et al. (1998). Mucosal candidal colonization and candidiasis in women with or at risk for human immunodeficiency virus infection. HIV Epidemiology Research Study (HERS) Group. Clin Infect Dis 27:1161–7
  • Scott TG, Curran B, Smyth CJ. (1989). Electron microscopy of adhesive interactions between Gardnerella vaginalis and vaginal epithelial cells, McCoy cells and human red blood cells. J Gen Microbiol 135:475–80
  • Segal E, Soroka A, Schechter A. (1984). Correlative relationship between adherence of Candida albicans to human vaginal epithelial cells in vitro and candidal vaginitis. Sabouraudia 22:191–200
  • Shu’aibu I, Tennu PD, Fatima UM, et al. (2014). Incidence of vulvovaginal candidiasis associated with Candida albicans among pregnant women attending Gombe State Specialist Hospital, Gombe, Nigeria. Bayero J Pure Appl Sci 6:84–8
  • Sidrim J, Rocha M. (2004). Micologia Médica à luz de autores contemporâneos. Rio de Janeiro: Guanabara Koogan
  • Silva, CR, de Melo KE, Leão MV, et al. (2008). Presença de Candida nas mucosas vaginal e bucal e sua relação com IgA salivar. Rev Bras Ginecol e Obs 30:300–5
  • Silva S, Henriques M, Martins A, et al. (2009). Biofilms of non-Candida albicans Candida species: quantification, structure and matrix composition. Med Mycol 47:681–9
  • Silva S, Negri M, Henriques M, et al. (2012). Candida glabrata, Candida parapsilosis and Candida tropicalis: biology, epidemiology, pathogenicity and antifungal resistance. FEMS Microbiol Rev 36:288–305
  • Skowronski R, Feldman D. (1989). Characterization of an estrogen-binding protein in the yeast Candida albicans. Endocrinology 124:1965–72
  • Sobel JD. (2005). Genital candidiasis. Medicine 33:62–5
  • Sobel JD. (2007). Vulvovaginal candidosis. Lancet 369:1961–71
  • Sobel JD. (2014). Genital candidiasis. Medicine 38:186–90
  • Sobel JD, Brooker D, Stein GE, et al. (1995). Single oral dose fluconazole compared with conventional clotrimazole topical therapy of Candida vaginitis. Fluconazole vaginitis study group. Am J Obstet Gynecol 172:1263–8
  • Sobel JD, Chaim W, Nagappan V, Leaman D. (2003). Treatment of vaginitis caused by Candida glabrata: use of topical boric acid and flucytosine. Am J Obstet Gynecol 189:1297–300
  • Sobel JD, Faro S, Force RW, et al. (1998). Vulvovaginal candidiasis: epidemiologic, diagnostic, and therapeutic considerations. Am J Obstet Gynecol 178:203–11
  • Sobel JD, Kapernick PS, Zervos M, et al. (2001). Treatment of complicated Candida vaginitis: comparison of single and sequential doses of fluconazole. Am J Obstet Gynecol 185:363–69
  • Sobel JD, Leamna D. (1998). Suppressive maintenance therapy of recurrent bacterial vaginosis utilizing 0.75% metronidazole vaginal gel. In: Abstracts of the second international meeting on bacterial vaginosis. Aspen
  • Sobel JD, Myers PG, Kaye D, Levison ME. (1981). Adherence of Candida albicans to human vaginal and buccal epithelial cells. J Infect Dis 143:76–82
  • Sobel JD, Wiesenfeld HC, Martens M, et al. (2004). Maintenance fluconazole therapy for recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. N Engl J Med 351:876–83
  • Sojakova M, Liptajova D, Borovsky M, Subik J. (2004). Fluconazole and itraconazole susceptibility of vaginal yeast isolates from Slovakia. Mycopathologia 157:163–9
  • Soll DR. (1988). High-frequency switching in Candida albicans and its relations to vaginal candidiasis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 158:997–1001
  • Soll DR. (1997). Gene regulation during high-frequency switching in Candida albicans. Microbiology 143:279–88
  • Soll DR, Galask R, Isley S, et al. (1989). Switching of Candida albicans during successive episodes of recurrent vaginitis. J Clin Microbiol 27:681–90
  • Soll DR, Langtimm CJ, McDowell J, et al. (1987). High-frequency switching in Candida strains isolated from vaginitis patients. J Clin Microbiol 25:1611–22
  • Spacek J, Buchta V, Jílek P, Förstl M. (2007). Clinical aspects and luteal phase assessment in patients with recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 131:198–202
  • Spellberg BJ, Ibrahim AS, Avanesian V, et al. (2006). Efficacy of the anti-Candida rAls3p-N or rAls1p-N vaccines against disseminated and mucosal candidiasis. J Infect Dis 194:256–60
  • Spinillo A, Bernuzzi AM, Cevini C, et al. (1997a). The relationship of bacterial vaginosis, Candida and trichomonas infection to symptomatic vaginitis in postmenopausal women attending a vaginitis clinic. Maturitas 27:253–60
  • Spinillo A, Capuzzo E, Acciano S, et al. (1999). Effect of antibiotic use on the prevalence of symptomatic vulvovaginal candidiasis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 180:14–17
  • Spinillo A, Capuzzo E, Gulminetti R, et al. (1997b). Prevalence of and risk factors for fungal vaginitis caused by non-albicans species. Am J Obstet Gynecol 176:138–41
  • Spinillo A, Capuzzo E, Nicola S, et al. (1995). The impact of oral contraception on vulvovaginal candidiasis. Contraception 51:293–7
  • Spinillo A, Nicola S, Colonna L, et al. (1994). Frequency and significance of drug resistance in vulvovaginal candidiasis. Gynecol Obstet Invest 38:130–3
  • Spinillo A, Pizzoli G, Colonna L, et al. (1993). Epidemiologic characteristics of women with idiopathic recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. Obstet Gynecol 81:721–7
  • Stehr F, Felk A, Gácser A, et al. (2004). Expression analysis of the Candida albicans lipase gene family during experimental infections and in patient samples. FEMS Yeast Res 4:401–8
  • Sumiya M, Tabona P, Arai T, et al. (1991). Molecular basis of opsonic defect in immunodeficient children. Lancet 337:1569–70
  • Swidsinski A, Mendling W, Loening-Baucke V, et al. (2008). An adherent Gardnerella vaginalis biofilm persists on the vaginal epithelium after standard therapy with oral metronidazole. Am J Obstet Gynecol 198:97.e1–6
  • Tamura NK, Negri MF, Bonassoli LA, Svidzinski TI. (2007). Fatores de virulência de Candida spp isoladas de cateteres venosos e mãos de servidores hospitalares. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 40:91–3
  • Tarry W, Fisher M, Shen S, Mawhinney M. (2005). Candida albicans: the estrogen target for vaginal colonization. J Surg Res 129:278–82
  • Taylor BN, Staib P, Binder A. (2005). Profile of Candida albicans-secreted aspartic proteinase elicited during vaginal infection. Infect Immun 73:1828–35
  • Thein ZM, Seneviratne CJ, Samaranayake YH, Samaranayake LP. (2009). Community lifestyle of Candida in mixed biofilms: a mini review. Mycoses 52:467–75
  • Tibaldi C, Cappello N, Latino MA, et al. (2009). Vaginal and endocervical microorganisms in symptomatic and asymptomatic non-pregnant females: risk factors and rates of occurrence. Clin Microbiol Infect 15:670–9
  • Togni G, Sanglard D, Falchetto R, Monod M. (1991). Isolation and nucleotide sequence of the extracellular acid protease gene (ACP) from the yeast Candida tropicalis. FEBS Lett 286:181–5
  • Tooley PJ. (1985). Patient and doctor preferences in the treatment of vaginal candidosis. Practitioner 229:655–60
  • Vargas K, Messer SA, Pfaller M, et al. (2000). Elevated phenotypic switching and drug resistance of Candida albicans from human immunodeficiency virus-positive individuals prior to first thrush episode. J Clin Microbiol 38:3595–607
  • Velraeds MM, Van De Belt-Gritter B, Van Der Mei HC, et al. (1998). Interference in initial adhesion of uropathogenic bacteria and yeasts to silicone rubber by a Lactobacillus acidophilus biosurfactant. J Med Microbiol 47:1081–5
  • Verstrepen KJ, Klis FM. (2006). Flocculation, adhesion and biofilm formation in yeasts. Mol Microbiol 60:5–15
  • Vidotto V, Mantoan B, Pugliese A, et al. (2003). Adherence of Candida albicans and Candida dubliniensis to buccal and vaginal cells. Rev Iberoam Micol 20:52–4
  • Vijaya D, Dhanalakshmi TA, Kulkarni S. (2014). Changing trends of vulvovaginal candidiasis. J Lab Physicians 6:28–30
  • Wagner RD, Johnson SJ. (2012). Probiotic Lactobacillus and estrogen effects on vaginal epithelial gene expression responses to Candida albicans. J Biomed Sci 19:58. doi: 10.1186/1423-0127-19-58
  • Watson C, Calabretto H. (2007). Comprehensive review of conventional and non-conventional methods of management of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. Aust New Zeal J Obstet Gynaecol 47:262–72
  • Watson MC, Grimshaw JM, Bond CM, et al. (2002). Oral versus intra-vaginal imidazole and triazole anti-fungal agents for the treatment of uncomplicated vulvovaginal candidiasis (thrush): a systematic review. BJOG 109:85–95
  • Watts DH, Rabe L, Krohn MA, et al. (1999). The effects of three nonoxynol-9 preparations on vaginal flora and epithelium. J Infect Dis 180:426–37
  • Weissenbacher TM, Witkin SS, Gingelmaier A, et al. (2009). Relationship between recurrent vulvovaginal candidosis and immune mediators in vaginal fluid. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 144:59–63
  • White S, Larsen B. (1997). Candida albicans morphogenesis is influenced by estrogen. Cell Mol Life Sci 53:744–9
  • Williams DW, Kuriyama T, Silva S, et al. (2011). Candida biofilms and oral candidosis: treatment and prevention. Periodontology 2000 55:250–65
  • Wilson RM, Reeves WG. (1986). Neutrophil phagocytosis and killing in insulin-dependent diabetes. Clin Exp Immunol 63:478–84
  • Wilson RM, Tomlinson DR, Reeves WG. (1987). Neutrophil sorbitol production impairs oxidative killing in diabetes. Diabet Med 4:37–40
  • Wira CR, Fahey JV. (2008). A new strategy to understand how HIV infects women: identification of a window of vulnerability during the menstrual cycle. AIDS 22:1909–17
  • Wira CR, Fahey JV, Ghosh M, et al. (2010). Sex hormone regulation of innate immunity in the female reproductive tract: the role of epithelial cells in balancing reproductive potential with protection against sexually transmitted pathogens. Am J Reprod Immunol 63:544–65
  • Wira CR, Fahey JV, Sentman CL, et al. (2005a). Innate and adaptive immunity in female genital tract: cellular responses and interactions. Immunol Rev 206:306–35
  • Wira CR, Grant-Tschudy KS, Crane-Godreau MA. (2005b). Epithelial cells in the female reproductive tract: a central role as sentinels of immune protection. Am J Reprod Immunol 53:65–76
  • Witkin SS. (1991). Immunologic factors influencing susceptibility to recurrent candidal vaginitis. Clin Obstet Gynecol 34:662–8
  • Witkin SS, Jeremias J, Ledger WJ. (1989). Vaginal eosinophils and IgE antibodies to Candida albicans in women with recurrent vaginitis. J Med Vet Mycol 27:57–8
  • Xu J, Schwartz K, Bartoces M, et al. (2008). Effect of antibiotics on vulvovaginal candidiasis: a MetroNet study. J Am Board Fam Med 21:261–8
  • Xu J, Sobel JD. (2003). Antibiotic-associated vulvovaginal candidiasis. Curr Infect Dis Rep 5:481–7
  • Zaugg C, Zepelin MB, Reichard U, et al. (2001). Secreted aspartic proteinase family of Candida tropicalis. Infect Immun 69:405–12
  • Zhang X, Essmann M, Burt ET, Larsen B. (2000). Estrogen effects on Candida albicans: a potential virulence-regulating mechanism. J Infect Dis 181:1441–6
  • Zitvogel L, Apetoh L, Ghiringhelli F, Kroemer G. (2008). Immunological aspects of cancer chemotherapy. Nat Rev Immunol 8:59–73
  • Zordan RE, Galgoczy DJ, Johnson AD. (2006). Epigenetic properties of white-opaque switching in Candida albicans are based on a self-sustaining transcriptional feedback loop. Proc Natl Acad Sci 103:12807–12
  • Zordan RE, Miller MG, Galgoczy DJ, et al. (2007). Interlocking transcriptional feedback loops control white-opaque switching in Candida albicans. PLoS Bio 5:256

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.