Trichloroethylene risk assessment: A review and commentary

References

• Alexander DD, Kelsh MA, Mink PJ, Mandel JH, Basu R, Weingart M (2007). A meta-analysis of occupational trichloroethylene exposure and liver cancer. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 81:127–143.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andersen ME (1981). A physiologically based toxicokinetic description of the metabolism of inhaled gases and vapors: Analysis at steady state. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 60:509–526.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andersen ME (2003). Toxicokinetic modeling and it’s applications in chemical risk assessment. Toxicol Lett 138:9–27.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ATSDR (1997). Toxicological Profile for Trichloroethylene (Updated). Atlanta: Agency for Toxic Substances Disease Registry.
   Google Scholar
• Baake B, Stewart PA, Waters MA (2007). Uses of and exposure to trichloroethylene in US industry: A systemic literature review. J Occup Environ Hyg 4:375–390.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Beland FA, Poirier MC (1993). Significance of DNA adduct studies in animals for cancer molecular dosimetry and risk assessment. Environ Health Perspect 99:5–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bloemen LJ, Monster AC, Kezic S, Commandeur JN, Veulemans H, Vermeulen NP, Wilmer JW (2001). Study on the cytochrome P-450- and glutathione-dependent biotransformation of trichloroethylene in humans. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 74:102–108.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bogen KT (1988). Pharmacokinetics for regulatory risk analysis: The case for trichloroethylene. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 8:447–466.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bogen KT, Gold LS (1997). Trichloroethylene cancer risk; Simplified calculation of PBPK-based MCLs for cytotoxic end points. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 25:26–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brauch H, Weirich G, Hornauer MA, Storkel S, Wohl T, Bruning T (1999). Trichloroethylene exposure and specific somatic mutations in patients with renal cell carcinoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 91:854–861.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brauch H, Weirich G, Klein B, Rabstein S, Bolt HM, Bruning T (2004). VHL mutations In renal cell cancer:Does occupational exposure to trichloroethylene make a difference? Toxicol Lett 151:301–310.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bronley-DeLancey A, McMillan DC, McMillan JM, Jollow DJ, Mohr LC, Hoel DG (2006). Application of cryopreserved human hepatocytes in trichloroethylene risk assessment: Relative disposition of chloral hydrate to trichloroacetate and trichloroethanol. Environ Health Perspect 114:1237–1242.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brown RP, Delp MD, Lindstedt SL, Rhomberg LR, Beliles RP (1997). Physiological parameter values for physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling. Toxicol Ind Health 13:407–484.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruckner JV, Ramanathan R, Lee KM, Muralidhara S (2002). Mechanisms of circadian rhythmicity of carbon tetrachloride hepatotoxicity. J Pharmacol Exp Therap 300:273–281.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruning T, Bolt HM (2000). Renal toxicity and carcinogenicity of trichloroethylene: Key results, mechanisms and controversies. Crit Rev Toxicol 30:253–285.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bull RJ (2000). Mode of action of liver tumor induction by trichloroethylene and its metabolites trichloroactetate and dichloroacetate. Environ Health Perspect 108(Suppl 2):241–259.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bull RJ, Orner GA, Cheng RS, Stillwell L, Stauber AJ, Sasser LB, Lingohr MK, Thrall BD (2002). Contribution of dichloroacetate and trichloroacetate to liver tumor induction in mice by trichloroethylene. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 182:55–65.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Butterworth BE, Templin MV, Borghoff SJ, Conolly RB, Kedderis GL, Wolf DC (1995). The role of regenerative cell proliferation in chloroform-induced cancer. Toxicol Lett 82/83:23–25.
   Google Scholar
• Caldwell JC, Keshava N (2006). Key issues in the modes of action and effects of trichloroethylene metabolites for liver and kidney tumorigenesis. Environ Health Perspect 114:1457–1463.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caldwell JC, Evans ME, Marcus AH, Scott CS, Chiu WA, Okino MS, Preuss PW (2006). Comments on article “Applying mode-of-action and pharmacokinetic considerations in contemporary risk assessments: An example with trichloroethylene” by Clewell and Andersen. Crit Rev Toxicol 36:291–294.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cattley RC (2003). Regulation of cell proliferation and cell death by peroxisome proliferators. Microscopy Res Tech 61:179–184.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cattley RC, DeLuca J, Elcombe C, Fenner-Crisp P, Lake BG, Marsman DS, Pastoor TA, Popp JA, Robinson DE, Schwetz B, Tugwood J, Wahli W (1998). Do peroxisome proliferating compounds pose a hepatocarcinogenic hazard to humans? Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 27:47–60.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charbotel B, Gad S, Caiola D, Beroud C, Fevotte J, Bergeret A, Ferlicot S, Richard S (2007). Trichloroethylene exposure and somatic mutations of the VHL gene in patients with renal cell carcinoma. J Occup Med Toxicol 2:13–20.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chiu WA, Okino MS, Lipscomb JC, Evans MV (2006). Issues in the pharmacokinetics of trichloroethylene and its metabolites. Environ Health Perspect 114:1450–1456.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clewell HJ, Andersen ME (2004). Applying mode-of-action and pharmacokinetic considerations in contemporary cancer risk assessments: An example with trichloroethylene. Crit Rev Toxicol 34:384–445.
   Google Scholar
• Clewell HJ, III, Gentry PR, Covington TR, Gearhart JM (2000). Development of a physiologically based pharmacokinetic model of trichloroethylene and its metabolites for use in risk assessment. Environ Health Perspect 108(Suppl 2):283–305.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Coffin JC, Ge R, Yang S, Kramer PM, Tao L, Pereira MA (2000). Effect of trihalomethanes on cell proliferation and DNA methylation in female B6C3F1 mouse liver. Toxicol Sci 58:243–252.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cook JC, Klinefelter GR, Hardisty JF, Sharpe RM, Foster PMD (1999). Rodent Leydig cell tumorigenesis: A review of the physiology, pathology, mechanisms and relevance to humans. Crit Rev Toxicol 29:169–261.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corton JC, Lapinskas PJ, Gonzalez FJ (2000). Central role of PPARa in the mechanism of action of hepatocarcinogenic peroxisomal proliferators. Mutat Res 448:139–151.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cotruvo JA (1988). Drinking water standards and risk assessment. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 8:288–299.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coussens LM, Werb Z (2002). Inflammation and cancer. Nature 420:860–867.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Covington TR, Clewell HJ, Fisher JW (2006). Development of a physiologically-based pharmacokinetic model of trichloroethylene and its metabolites for use in risk assessment. Wright-Patterson AFB, OH: Human Effectiveness Directorate Biosciences and Protection Division. AFRL-HE-WP-TR-2006-0049. Available at stinet.dtic.mil.
   Google Scholar
• DeAngelo AB, Daniel FB, Most BM, Olson GR (1996). The carcinogenicity of dichloroacetic acid in the male Fischer 344 rat. Toxicology 114:207–221.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dekant W (2001). Does exposure to trichloroethylene in low doses constitute a cancer risk to humans? Human Ecol Risk Assess 7:657–675.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DuTeaux SB, Hengel MJ, DeGroot DE, Jelks KA and Miller MG (2003). Evidence for trichloroethylene bioactivation and adduct formation in the rat epididymis and efferent ducts. Biol Reprod 69:771–779.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fay RM, Mumtaz MM (1996). Development of a priority list of chemical mixtures occurring at 1188 hazardous waste sites using the HazDat database. Food Chem Toxicol 34:1163–1165.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisher JW (2000). Physiologically based pharmacokinetic models for trichloroethylene and its oxidative metabolites. Environ Health Perspect 108(Suppl 2):265–273.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fisher JW, Mahle D, Abbas R (1998). A human physiologically based pharmacokinetic model for trichloroethylene and its metabolites trichloroacetic acid and free trichloroethanol. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 152:339–359.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Folland DS, Schaffner W, Ginn EH, Crofford OB, McMurray DR (1976). Carbon tetrachloride toxicity potentiated by isopropyl alcohol. JAMA 236:1853–1856.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forkert P-G, Baldwin RM, Millen B, Lash LH, Put DA, Shultz MA, Collins KS (2005). Pulmonary bioactivation of trichloroethylene to chloral hydrate: Relative contributions of CYP2E1, CYP2F and CYP2B1. Drug Metab Dispos 33:1429–1437.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forkert P-G, Lash LH, Nadeau V, Tardif R, Simmonds A (2002). Metabolism and toxicity of trichloroethylene in epididymis and testes. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 182:244–254.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forkert P-G, Lash L, Tardif R, Tanphaichitr N, Vandevoort C, Moussa M (2003). Identification of trichloroethylene and its metabolites in human seminal fluid of workers exposed to trichloroethylene. Drug Metab Dispos 31:306–311.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gargas ML, Burgess RJ, Voisard DE, Cason GH, Andersen ME (1989). Partition coefficients of low-molecular-weight volatile chemicals in various liquids and tissues. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 98:81–99.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ge R, Pang W, Kramer PM, Yang S, Tao L, Pereira MA (2001). Wy-14643-induced hypomethylation of the c-myc gene in mouse liver. Toxicol Sci 62:28–35.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Golden RJ, Holm SE, Robinson DE, Julkunen PH, Reese EA (1997). Chloroform mode of action: Implications for cancer risk assessment. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 26:142–155.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzalez FJ, Shah YM (2008). PPARα: Mechanism of species differences and hepatocarcinogenesis of peroxisome proliferators. Toxicology 246:2–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordon SM, Brinkman MC, Ashley DL, Blount BC, Lyu C, Masters J, Singer PC (2006). Changes in breath trihalomethane levels resulting from household water-use activities. Environ Health Perspect 114:514–521.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green T (2000). Pulmonary toxicity and carcinogenicity of trichloroethylene.Species differences and modes of action. Environ Health Perspect 108(Suppl 2):261–264.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Green T, Dow J, Ellis MK, Odum J (1997). The role of glutathione conjugation in the development of kidney tumors exposed to trichloroethylene. Chem-Biol Interact 105:99–117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guengerich FP, Kim DH, Iwasaki M (1991). Role of human cytochrome P-450 IIE1 in the oxidation of many low molecular weight cancer suspects. Chem Res Toxicol 4:168–179.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hack CE, Chiu WA, Zhao QJ, Clewell HJ (2006). Bayesian population analysis of a harmonized physiologically-based pharmacokinetic model of trichloroethylene and its metabolites. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 46:63–83.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halmes NC, McMillan DC, Oatis JE, Jr, Pumford NR (1996). Immunochemical detection of protein adducts in mice treated with trichloroethylene. Chem Res Toxicol 9:451–456.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hard GC, Boorman GA, Wolf DC (2000). Re-evaluation of the 2-year chloroform drinking water carcinogenicity bioassay in Osborne-Mendel rats supports chronic renal tubule injury as the mode of action underlying the renal tumor response. Toxicol Sci 53:237–244.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hart RW, Frame L (1996). Toxicologic defense mechanisms and how they affect the nature of the dose-response relationships. BELLE Newslett 5:1–25.
   Google Scholar
• Haselkorn T, Whittemore, AS, Udaltsova N, Friedman, GD (2006). Short-term chloral hydrate administration and cancer in humans. Drug Safety 29:67–77.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Haseman JK, Hailey JR, Morris RW (1998). Spontaneous neoplasm incidences in Fischer 344 rats and B6C3F1 mice in two-year carcinogenicity studies: A National Toxicology Program update. Toxicol Pathol 26:428–441.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henderson GN, Yan Z, James MO, Davydova N, Stacpoole PW (1997). Kinetics and metabolism of chloral hydrate in children: Identification of dichloroacetate as a metabolite. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 235:695–698.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henschler D, Hoos WR, Fetz H, Dollmeier E, Metzler M (1980). Reactions of trichloroethylene by long-term inhalation in three animal species. Arch Toxicol 43:237–248.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henschler D, Vamvakas S, Lammert M, Dekant W, Kraus B, Thomas B, Ulm K (1995). Increased incidence of renal cell tumors in a cohort of cardboard workers exposed to trichloroethylene. Arch Toxicol 69:291–299.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IARC (1995). Dry Cleaning, Some Chlorinated Solvents and Other Industrial Chemicals. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risk to Humans. Vol 63. Lyon, France: IARC.
   Google Scholar
• IOM (2003). Gulf War and Health. Vol 2. Insecticides and Solvents. Institute of Medicine. Washington DC: National Academies Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ito Y, Yamanoshita O, Asaeda N, Tagawa Y, Lee C, Aoyama T, Ichihara G, Furuhashi K, Kamijima M, Gonzalez FJ, Nakajima T (2007). Di(2- ethylhexly)phthalate induces hepatic tumors through a peroxisomal proliferator-activated receptor-independent pathway. J Occup Health 49:172–182.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jerina DM, Chadha A, Cheh AM, Schurdak ME, Wood AW, Sayer JM (1990). Covalent bonding of bay-region diol epoxides to nucleic acids. Adv Exp Med Biol 283:533–555.
   Google Scholar
• Kadlubar FF, Talaska G, Lang NP, Benson RW, Roberts DW (1988). Assessment of exposure and susceptibility to aromatic amine carcinogens. IARC Scientific Publ 89:166–174.
   Google Scholar
• Kaneko T, Wang PY, Sato A (1994). Enzymes induced by ethanol differently affect the pharmacokinetics of trichloroethylene and 111-trichloroethane. Occup Environ Med 51:113–119.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kedderis GL (1997). Extrapolation of in vitro enzyme induction data to humans in vivo. Chem-Biol Interact 107:109–121.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keengwe IN, Hedge S, Dearlove O, Yates RW, Sharples A (1999). Structured sedation program for magnetic resonance imaging examination in children. Anesthesia 54:1069–1072.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• King-Herbert A, Thayer K (2006). NTP workshop: Animal models for the NTP rodent cancer bioassay: Stocks and strains-should we switch? Toxicol Pathol 34:802–805.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klaunig JE, Babich MA, Baetcke KP, Cook JC, Corton JC, David RM, DeLuca JG, Lai DY, McKee RH, Peters JM, Roberts RA, Fenner-Crisp PA (2003). PPAR alpha agonist-induced rodent tumors: Modes of action and human relevance. Crit Rev Toxicol 33:655–780.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kundu JK, Surh YJ (2008). Inflammation: Gearing the journey to cancer. Mutat Res 659:15–30.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lamb JC, Hentz KL (2006). Toxicological review of male reproductive effects and trichloroethylene exposure: Assessing the relevance to human male reproductive health. Reprod Toxicol 22:557–563.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lash LH, Fisher JW, Lipscomb JC, Parker JC (2000a). Metabolism of trichloroethylene. Environ Health Perspect 108(Suppl 2):177–200.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lash LH, Parker JC, Scott CS (2000b). Modes of action of trichloroethylene for kidney tumorigenesis. Environ Health Perspect 108(Suppl 2):225–240.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lash LH, Qian W, Putt DA, Hueni SE, Elfarra AA, Krause RJ, Parker JC (2001). Renal and hepatic toxicity of trichloroethylene and glutathione-derived metabolites in rats and mice: Sex-, species-, and tissue-dependent differences. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 179:163–171.
   Google Scholar
• Latendresse JR, Pereira MA (1997). Dissimilar characteristics of N-methyl-N-nitrosourea-initiated foci and tumors promoted by dichloroacetic acid or trichloroacetic acid in the liver of female B6C3F1 mice. Toxicol Pathol 25:433–440.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laughter AR, Dunn CS, Swanson CL, Howroyd P, Cattley RC, Corton JC (2004). Role of the peroxisomal proliferators-activated receptor α (PPRAα) in responses to trichloroethylene and metabolites trichloroacetate and dichloracetetate in mouse liver. Toxicology 203:83–98.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lavin AL, Jacobson CF, DeSesso JM (2000). An assessment of the carcinogenic potential of trichloroethylene in humans. Human Ecol Risk Assess 6:575–641.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee KM, Bruckner JV, Muralidhara S, Gallo JM (1996). Characterization of presystemic elimination of trichloroethylene and its nonlinear kinetics in rats. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 139:262–271.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee KM, Muralidhara S, White CA, Bruckner JV (2000). Mechanisms of the dose-dependent kinetics of trichloroethylene. Oral bolus dosing of rats. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 164:55–64.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee LJ, Chung CW, Ma YC, Wang GS, Chen PC, Hwayn YH, Wang JD (2003). Increased mortality odds ratio of male liver cancer in a community contaminated by chlorinated hydrocarbons in groundwater. Occup Environ Med 60:364–369.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li T, Schultz I, Keys, UA, Campbell JL, Fisher JW (2008). Quantitative evaluation of dichloroacetic acid kinetics in human—A physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling investigation. Toxicology 245:35–48.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lipscomb JC, Teuschler LK, Swartout J, Popken D, Cox T, Kedderis GL (2003). The impact of cytochrome P450 2E1-dependent metabolic variance on a risk-relevant pharmacokinetic outcome in humans. Risk Anal 23:1221–1238.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipworth L, Tarone RE, McLaughlin JK (2006). The epidemiology of renal cell carcinoma. J Urol 176:2353–2358.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu Y, Bartlett MG, White CA, Muralidhara S, Bruckner JV (2009). Characterization of presystemic elimination of trichloroethylene (TCE) in rats following environmentally relevant exposures. Drug Metab Dispos 37:1–5.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Liu Y, Muralidhara S, Bruckner JV, Bartlett MG (2008). Determination of trichloroethylene in biological samples by headspace solid-phase microextraction gas chromatography/mass spectrophotometery. J Chromatogr B 863:26–35.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lock EA, Reed CJ (2006). Trichloroethylene: Mechanisms of renal toxicity and renal cancer and relevance to risk assessment. Toxicol Sci 91:313–331.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luch A (2002). Cell cycle control and cell division: Implications for chemically induced carcinogenesis. Chembiochem 3:506–516.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lumpkin MH, Bruckner JV, Campbell JL, Dallas CE, White, CA, Fisher JW (2003a). Plasma binding of trichloroacetic acid in mice, rats and humans under cancer bioassay and environmental exposure conditions. Drug Metab Dispos 31:1203–1207.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lumpkin MH, Dallas CE, Bruckner JV, Fisher JW (2003b). Physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling of species-specific effects of plasma binding of trichloroacetic acid from trichloroethylene in mice, rats and humans. Toxicologist 72:178.
   Google Scholar
• Magee PN, Barnes JM (1967). Carcinogenic nitroso compounds. Adv Cancer Res 10:163–246.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mally A, Walker CL, Everitt JI, Dekant W, Vamvakas S (2006). Analysis of renal cell transformation following exposure to trichloroethene in vivo and its metabolite S-(dichlorovinyl)-l-cysteine in vitro. Toxicology 22:108–118.
   Google Scholar
• Maltoni C, Lefemine G, Cotti G, Perino G (1988). Long-term carcinogenicity bioassays on trichloroethylene administered by inhalation to Sprague-Dawley rats and Swiss and B6C3F1 mice. Ann N Y Acad Sci 534:316–342.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manno M, Rezzadore M, Grossi M, Sbrana C (1996). Potentiation of occupational carbon tetrachloride toxicity by ethanol abuse. Hum Exp Toxicol 15:294–300.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Merdink JL, Robison LM, Stevens DK, Hu M, Parker JC, Bull RJ (2008). Kinetics of chloral hydrate and its metabolites in male human volunteers. Toxicology 245:130–140.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller JA, Miller EC (1977). The concept of reactive electrophilic metabolites in chemical carcinogenesis: Recent results with aromatic amines safrole and aflatoxin B1. In: Jollow D, Kocsis J, Snyder R, Vainio H, eds. Biological Reactive Metabolites: Formation Toxicity and Inactivation. New York: Plenum Press, 6–24.
   Google Scholar
• Moran MJ, Zogorski JS, Squillace PJ (2007). Chlorinated solvents in groundwater of the United States. Environ Sci Technol 41:74–81.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morimura K, Cheung C, Ward JM, Reddy JK, Gonzalez FJ (2006). Differential susceptibility of mice humanized for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (alpha) to Wy-14643-induced liver tumorigenesis. Carcinogenesis 27:1074–1080.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakabeppu Y, Tsuchimoto D, Furuichi M, Sakumi K (2004). The defense mechanisms in mammalian cells against oxidative damage in nucleic acids and their involvement in the suppression of mutagenesis and cell death. Free Radic Res 38:423–429.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakajima T, Okino T, Okuyama S, Kaneko T, Yonekura L, Sato A (1988). Ethanol-induced enhancement of trichloroethylene metabolism and hepatotoxicity: Difference from the effect of phenobarbital. Toxicol Applied Pharmacol 94:227–237.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NRC (National Research Council). (2006). Assessing the Human Health Risks of Trichloroethylene. Key Scientific Issues. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
   Google Scholar
• NRC (National Research Council). (2009). Contaminated Water Supplies at Camp Lejeune—Assessing Potential Health Effects. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
   Google Scholar
• NTP (2000a). National Toxicology Program Toxicological and Carcinogenesis Studies of Chloral Hydrate (Ad Libitum and Feed Restricted) in B6C3F1 Mice (Gavage Studies). NTP TR 503. NIH Publ. No. 00-4437.
   Google Scholar
• NTP (2000b). National Toxicology Program Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of Chloral Hydrate in B6C3F1 Mice (Gavage Study). NTP TR 502. NIH Publ. No. 00-4436.
   Google Scholar
• NTP (1988). National Toxicology Program Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of Trichloroethylene in Four Strains of Rats (ACI, August, Marshall, Osborne-Mendel). (Gavage Studies). NTP TR 273.
   Google Scholar
• Odum J, Foster JR, Green T (1992). A mechanism for the development of Clara cell lesions in the mouse lung after exposure to trichloroethylene. Chem-Biol Interact 83:135–153.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pereira MA, Phillips JB (1996). Promotion by dichloroacetic acid and trichloroacetic acid of N-methyl-N-nitrosourea cancer in the liver of female B6C3F1 mice. Cancer Lett 102:133–141.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Preussmann R (1984). Carcinogenic N-nitroso compounds and their environmental significance. Naturwissenschaften 71:25–30.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Price PS, Conolly R, Chaisson CF, Grass EA, Young JS, Mathis ET, Tedder DR (2003). Modeling inter-individual variation in physiological factors in PBPK models of humans. Crit Rev Toxicol 33:469–503.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raaschou-Nielsen O, Hansen J, McLauglin JK, Kolstad H, Christensen JM, Tarone RE, Olsen JH (2003). Cancer risk among workers at Danish companies using trichloroethylene: A cohort study. Am J Epidemiol 148:1182–1192.
   Google Scholar
• Rozalski R, Gackowski D, Roszkowski K, Foksinski M, Olinski R (2002). The level of 8-hydroxyguanine, an apparent repair product of oxidative DNA damage is higher in urine of cancer patients than in control subjects. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prevent 11:1072–1075.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saghir SA, Shultz IR (2002). Low-dose pharmacokinetics and oral bioavail-ability of dichloroacetate in naïve and GST-zeta-depleted rats. Environ Health Perspect 110:757–763.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sawant SP, Dnyanmote AV, Shankar K, Limaye PB, Latendresse JR, Mehendale HM (2004). Potentiation of carbon tetrachloride hepatotoxicity and lethality in Type 2 diabetic rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 308:694–704.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schultz IR, Merdink JL, Gonzalez-Leon A, Bull RJ (1999). Comparative toxicokinetics of chlorinated and brominated haloacetates in F344 rats. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 158:103–114.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott CS, Chiu WA (2006). Trichloroethylene cancer epidemiology: A consideration of selected issues. Environ Health Perspect 114:1471–1478.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stacpoole PW, Gilbert LR, Neiberger RE, Carney PR, Valenstein E, Theiraque DW, Shuster JJ (2008). Evaluation of long-term treatment of children with congenital lactic acidosis. Pediatrics 121:1223–1228.
   Google Scholar
• Steinberg AD (1993). Should chloral hydrate be banned? Pediatrics 92:442–446.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stenner RD, Merdink JL, Stevens DK, Springer DL, Bull RJ (1997). Enterohepatic recirculation of trichloroethanol glucuronide as a significant source of trichloroacetic acid. Metabolites of trichloroethylene. Drug Metab Dispos 25:529–535.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sung TI, Chen PC, Lee L J-H, YP, Hsieh GY, Wang JD (2007). Increased standardized incidence ratio of breast cancer in female electronics workers. BMC Public Health 7:102–108.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tallarida RJ, Jacob LS (1975). The Dose-Response Relation in Pharmacology. New York: Springer-Verlag.
   Google Scholar
• Tao L, Ge R, Xie M, Kramer PM, Pereira MA (1999). Effect of trichloroethylene on DNA methylation and expression of early-intermediate protooncogenes in the liver of B6C3F1 mice. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 13:231–237.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tao L, Kramer PM, Ge R, Pereira MA (1998). Effect of dichloroacetic acid and trichloroacetic acid on DNA methylation in liver and tumors of female B6C3F1 mice. Toxicol Sci 43:139–144.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tao L, Li Y, Kramer PM, Wang W, Pereira MA (2004). Hypomethylation of DNA and the insulin-like growth factor-II gene in dichloroacetic- and trichloroacetic acid-promoted mouse liver tumors. Toxicology 196:127–136.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tao L, Yang S, Xie M, Kramer PM, Pereira MA (2000). Effect of trichloroethylene metabolites dichloroacetic acid and trichloroacetic acid on the methylation and expression of c-jun and c-myc protooncogenes in mouse liver: Prevention with methionine. Toxicol Sci 54:399–407.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tong Z, Board PG, Anders MW (1998). Glutathione transferase zeta catalyzes the oxygenation of the carcinogen dichloroacetic acid to glyoxylic acid. Biochem J 331:371–374.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tugwood JD, Aldridge TC, Lambe KG, MacDonald N, Woodyat NJ (1997). Peroxisome proliferator activated-receptor: Structures and functions. Ann N Y Acad Sci 804:252–265.
   Google Scholar
• USEPA (2000). Toxicological Review of Chloral Hydrate: In support of Summary Information on the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). EPA/635/R-00/006. Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency.
   Google Scholar
• USEPA (2001). Trichloroethylene Health Risk Assessment: Synthesis and Characterization: External Review Draft. EPA/600/P-01/002A. Washington, DC: Office of Research and Development, US Environmental Protection Agency.
   Google Scholar
• USEPA (2005). Guidelines for Carcinogen Risk Assessment. EPA/630/P-03/001F. Washington DC: US Environmental Protection Agency, Risk Assessment Forum.
   Google Scholar
• Vade A, Sukhani R, Dolenga M, Habisohn-Schuck C (1995). Chloral hydrate sedation of children undergoing CT and MR imaging: Safety as judged by American Academy of Pediatrics Guidelines. Am J Roentgenol 165:905–909.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vamvakas S, Bruning T, Thomasson B, Lammert M, Baumuller A, Bolt HM, Dekant W, Birmer G, Henschler D, Ulm K (1998). Renal cell cancer correlated with occupational exposure to trichloroethylene. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 124:374–382.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volkel W, Friedewald M, Lederer E, Pahler A, Dekant W (1998). Biotrans-formation of perchloroethylene: Dose-dependent excretion of trichloracetic acid, dichloroacetic acid and N-acetyl-S-(trichlorovinyl)-l-cysteine in rats and humans after inhalation. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 153:20–27.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waddell WJ (2003). Thresholds of carcinogenicity in the ED01 study. Toxicol Sci 72:158–163.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walgren JE, Kurtz DT, McMillan JM (2000a). The effect of trichloroethylene metabolites trichloroacetate and dichloroacetate on peroxisome proliferation and DNA synthesis in cultured human hepatoctes. Cell Biol Toxicol 16:257–273.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walgren JE, Kurtz DT, McMillan JM (2000b). Expression of PPARα in human hepatocytes and activation by trichloroacetate and dichloroacetate. Res Commun Mol Pathol Pharmacol 108:116–132.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walgren JL, Kurtz DT, McMillan JM (2005). Lack of direct mutagenic activity of dichloroacetate and trichloroacetate in cultured rat hepatocytes. Toxicology 211:220–230.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wartenberg D, Reyner D, Scott CS (2000). Trichloroethylene and cancer: Epidemiologic evidence. Environ Health Perspect 108(Suppl 2):161–176.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Weisel CP, Jo WK (1996). Ingestion, inhalation, and dermal exposures to chloroform and trichloroethene from tap water. Environ Health Perspect 104:48–51.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu H, Tanphaichitr N, Forkert P-G, Anupriwan A, Weerachatyanukul W, Vincent R, Leader A, Wade MG (2004). Exposure to trichloroethylene and its metabolites causes impairment of sperm fertilizing ability in mice. Toxicol Sci 82:590–597.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang J, Yu Y, Hamrick HE, Duerksen-Hughes PJ (2003). ATM, ATR and DNA-PK: Initiators of the cellular genotoxic stress responses. Carcinogenesis 24:1571–1580.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang Q, Nagano T, Shah Y, Cheung C, Ito S, Gonzalez FJ (2008). The PPARa-humanized mouse: A model to investigate species differences in liver toxicity mediated by PPARa. Toxicol Sci 101:132–139.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao Y, Krishnadasan A, Kennedy N, Morgenstern H, Ritz B (2005). Estimated effects of solvents and mineral oils on cancer incidence and mortality in a cohort of aerospace workers. Am J Ind Med 48:249–256.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar