1,894
Views
164
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Article

A review of the health hazards posed by cobalt

, , , &
Pages 316-362 | Received 09 Nov 2012, Accepted 20 Feb 2013, Published online: 08 May 2013

References

  • Akbar M, Brewer JM, Grant MH. (2011). Effect of chromium and cobalt ions on primary human lymphocytes in vitro. J Immunotoxicol, 8, 140–9
  • Albrecht A. (2003). Validating riverine transport and speciation models using nuclear reactor-derived radiocobalt. J Environ Radioactiv, 66, 295–307
  • Alexander CS. (1969). Cobalt and the heart. Ann Intern Med, 70, 411–13
  • Alexander CS. (1972). Cobalt-beer cardiomyopathy: a clinical and pathologic study of twenty-eight cases. Am J Med, 53, 395–417
  • Alimonti A, Bocca B, Mannella E, et al. (2005). Assessment of reference values for selected elements in a healthy urban population. Ann Ist Super Sanita, 41, 181–7
  • Almeida JP, Chen AL, Foster A, Drezek R. (2011). In vivo biodistribution of nanoparticles. Nanomedicine, 6, 815–35
  • Anard D, Kirsch-Volders M, Elhajouji A, et al. (1997). In vitro genotoxic effects of hard metal particles assessed by alkaline single cell gel and elution assays. Carcinogenesis, 18, 177–84
  • Anbar M, Inbar M. (1964). The effect of certain metallic cations on the iodide uptake in the thyroid gland of mice. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh), 46, 643–52
  • Anderson MB, Lepak K, Farinas V, George WJ. (1993). Protective action of zinc against cobalt-induced testicular damage in the mouse. Reprod Toxicol, 7, 49–54
  • Andre S, Metivier H, Masse R. (1989). An interspecies comparison of the lung clearance of inhaled monodisperse cobalt oxide particles – Part III: lung clearance of inhaled cobalt oxide particles in baboons. J Aerosol Sci, 20, 205–17
  • Andrews RE, Shah KM, Wilkinson JM, Gartland A. (2011). Effects of cobalt and chromium ions at clinically equivalent concentrations after metal-on-metal hip replacement on human osteoblasts and osteoclasts: implications for skeletal health. Bone, 49, 717–23
  • Angerer J, Heinrich R, Szadkowski D, Lehnert G. (1985). Occupational exposure to cobalt powder and salts biological monitoring and health effects. In: Lekkas TD, ed. International Conference Heavy Metals in the Environment; Vol. 2; September 1985; Athens, Edinburgh Scotland, UK: CEP Consultants
  • Antoniou J, Zukor DJ, Mwale F, et al. (2008). Metal ion levels in the blood of patients after hip resurfacing: a comparison between twenty-eight and thirty-six-millimeter-head metal-on-metal prostheses. J Bone Joint Surg Am, 90, 142–8
  • Apel W, Stark D, Stark A, et al. (2012). Cobalt-chromium toxic retinopathy case study. Doc Ophthalmol, 126, 69–78
  • Apostoli P, Catalani S, Zaghini A, et al. (2012). High doses of cobalt induce optic and auditory neuropathy. Exp Toxicol Pathol, Online October 12
  • Asmuss M, Mullenders LH, Eker A, et al. (2000). Differential effects of toxic metal compounds on the activities of Fpg and XPA, two zinc finger proteins involved in DNA repair. Carcinogenesis, 21, 2097–104
  • ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry). (2004). Toxicological profile for cobalt. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
  • Awadallah SM, Atoum MF, Nimer NA, Saleh SA. (2012). Ischemia modified albumin: an oxidative stress marker in beta-thalassemia major. Clin Chim Acta, 413, 907–10
  • Ayala-Fierro F, Firriolo JM, Carter DE. (1999). Disposition, toxicity, intestinal absorption of cobaltous chloride in male Fischer 344 rats. J Toxicol Environ Health A, 56, 571–91
  • Back DL, Young DA, Shimmin AJ. (2005). How do serum cobalt and chromium levels change after metal-on-metal hip resurfacing? Clin Orthop, 438, 177–81
  • Bailey MR, Kreyling WG, Andre S, et al. (1989). An interspecies comparison of the lung clearance of inhaled monodisperse cobalt oxide particles – Part I: objectives and summary of results. J Aerosol Sci, 20, 169–88
  • Baker PF, Meves H, Ridgway EB. (1973). Effects of manganese and other agents on the calcium uptake that follows depolarization of squid axons. J Physiol (Lond), 231, 511–26
  • Baldwin EL, Byl JA, Osheroff N. (2004). Cobalt enhances DNA cleavage mediated by human topoisomerase II alpha in vitro and in cultured cells. Biochemistry (Mosc), 43, 728–35
  • Bar-Or D, Bar-Or R, Rael LT, et al. (2005). Heterogeneity and oxidation status of commercial human albumin preparations in clinical use. Crit Care Med, 33, 1638–41
  • Bar-Or D, Lau E, Winkler JV. (2000). A novel assay for cobalt-albumin binding and its potential as a marker for myocardial ischemia – a preliminary report. J Emerg Med, 19, 311–15
  • Bar-Or D, Rael LT, Bar-Or R, et al. (2008). The cobalt-albumin binding assay: insights into its mode of action. Clin Chim Acta, 387, 120–7
  • Bar-Or D, Winkler JV, Vanbenthuysen K, et al. (2001). Reduced albumin-cobalt binding with transient myocardial ischemia after elective percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty: a preliminary comparison to creatine kinase-MB, myoglobin, and troponin I. Am Heart J, 141, 985–91
  • Barany E, Bergdahl IA, Bratteby LE, et al. (2005). Iron status influences trace element levels in human blood and serum. Environ Res, 98, 215–23
  • Barceloux D. (1999). Cobalt. Clin Toxicol, 37, 201–16
  • Barnaby CF, Smith T, Thompson BD. (1968). Dosimetry of the radioisotopes of cobalt. Phys Med Biol, 13, 421–33
  • Barras F, Fontecave M. (2011). Cobalt stress in Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica: molecular bases for toxicity and resistance. Metallomics, 3, 1130–4
  • Baskin SI, Behonick GS. (2000). Cardiac toxicology. In: Ballantyne B, Marrs TC, Syversen T, eds. General and applied toxicology. Vol. 2, 2nd ed, Chap. 40. New York: Macmillan, 803–26
  • Battaglia V, Compagnone A, Bandino A, et al. (2009). Cobalt induces oxidative stress in isolated liver mitochondria responsible for permeability transition and intrinsic apoptosis in hepatocyte primary cultures. Int J Biochem Cell Biol, 41, 586–94
  • Berk L, Burchenal JH, Castle WB. (1949). Erythropoietic effect of cobalt in patients with or without anemia. N Engl J Med, 240, 754–61
  • Beyersmann D, Hartwig A. (1992). The genetic toxicology of cobalt. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 115, 137–45
  • Beyersmann D, Hartwig A. (2008). Carcinogenic metal compounds: recent insight into molecular and cellular mechanisms. Arch Toxicol, 82, 493–512
  • Bhagavan NV, Lai EM, Rios PA, et al. (2003). Evaluation of human serum albumin cobalt binding assay for the assessment of myocardial ischemia and myocardial infarction. Clin Chem, 49, 581–5
  • Bianco AC, Kim BW. (2006). Deiodinases: implications of the local control of thyroid hormone action. J Clin Invest, 116, 2571–9
  • Biego GH, Joyeux M, Hartemann P, Debry G. (1998). Daily intake of essential minerals and metallic micropollutants from foods in France. Sci Total Environ, 217, 27–36
  • Billi F, Campbell P. (2010). Nanotoxicology of metal wear particles in total joint arthroplasty: a review of current concepts. J Appl Biomater Biomech, 8, 1–6
  • Bito R, Hino S, Baba A, et al. (2005). Degradation of oxidative stress-induced denatured albumin in rat liver endothelial cells. Amer J Physiol Cell Physiol, 289, C531–42
  • Black J, Levine B, Jacobs J. (2007). Biomaterials overview. In: Callaghan JJ, Rosenberg AG, Rubash HE, eds. The adult hip. Vol. 1, 2nd ed. Chap. 7. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 102–11
  • Bonenfant JL, Auger C, Miller G, et al. (1969). Quebec beer-drinkerslsquo; myocardosis: pathological aspects. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 156, 577–82
  • Borderie D, Allanore Y, Meune C, et al. (2004). High ischemia-modified albumin concentration reflects oxidative stress but not myocardial involvement in systemic sclerosis. Clin Chem, 50, 2190–3
  • Bourg WJ, Nation JR, Clark DE. (1985). The effects of chronic cobalt exposure on passive-avoidance performance in the adult rat. Bull Psychonom Soc, 23, 527–30
  • Bowie EA, Hurley PJ. (1975). Cobalt chloride in the treatment of refractory anaemia in patients undergoing long-term haemodialysis. Aust N Z J Med, 5, 306–14
  • Brodner W, Bitzan P, Meisinger V, et al. (2003). Serum cobalt levels after metal-on-metal total hip arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg Am, 85, 2168–73
  • Brodner W, Grohs JG, Bancher-Todesca D, et al. (2004). Does the placenta inhibit the passage of chromium and cobalt after metal-on-metal total hip arthroplasty? J Arthroplasty, 19, 102–106
  • Brookins DG. (1988). Fig. 35. Eh-pH diagram for part of the system Co-S-C-0-H. In: eds. Eh-PH Diagrams for Geochemistry With 98 Figures and 61 Tables. New York: Springer-Verlag. 72
  • Bucher JR, Elwell MR, Thompson MB, et al. (1990). Inhalation toxicity studies of cobalt sulfate in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice. Fundam Appl Toxicol, 15, 357–72
  • Burba P, Rocha J, Klockow D. (1994). Labile complexes of trace metals in aquatic humic substances: investigations by means of an ion exchange-based flow procedure. Fresenius' J Analyt Chem, 349, 800–7
  • Caicedo MS, Pennekamp PH, McAllister K, et al. (2009). Soluble ions more than particulate cobalt-alloy implant debris induce monocyte costimulatory molecule expression and release of proinflammatory cytokines critical to metal-induced lymphocyte reactivity. J Biomed Mater Res Part A, 93A, 1312–21
  • Carson BL, Ellis HV, McCann JL. (1986). Toxicology and biological monitoring of metals in humans: including feasibility and need. Chelsea, MI: Lewis Publishers
  • Case CP, Ellis L, Turner JC, et al. (2001). Development of a routine method for the determination of trace metals in whole blood by magnetic sector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry with particular relevance to patients with total hip and knee arthroplasty. Clin Chem, 47, 275–80
  • Case C, Langkamer V, James C, et al. (1994). Widespread dissemination of metal debris from implants. J Bone Joint Surg Br, 76, 701–12
  • Catalani S, Leone R, Rizzetti MC, et al. (2011). The role of albumin in human toxicology of cobalt: Contribution from a clinical case. ISRN Hematology, 2011, 1–6
  • Catalani S, Rizzetti MC, Padovani A, et al. (2012). Neurotoxicity of cobalt. Hum Exp Toxicol, 31, 421–37
  • Catelas I, Medley JB, Campbell PA, et al. (2004). Comparison of in vitro with in vivo characteristics of wear particles from metal-metal hip implants. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater, 70, 167–78
  • CDI (Cobalt Development Institute). Cobalt – The Technology Enabling Metal. Available from: http://www.thecdi.com/about-cobalt [last accessed 7 Nov 2012]
  • Chamberlain JL. (1961). Thyroid enlargement probably induced by cobalt: a report of 3 cases. J Pediatr, 59, 81–6
  • Chan AC, Chow CK, Chiu D. (1999). Interaction of antioxidants and their implication in genetic anemia. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med, 222, 274–82
  • Chen CY, Tsai WL, Lin PJ, Shiesh SC. (2011). The value of serum ischemia-modified albumin for assessing liver function in patients with chronic liver disease. Clin Chem Lab Med, 49, 1817–21
  • Chetty KN, Subba Rao DS, Drummond L, Desaiah D. (1979). Cobalt induced changes in immune response and adenosine triphosphatase activities in rats. J Environ Sci Health, Part B, 14, 525–44
  • Christensen JM, Poulsen OM. (1994). A 1982–1992 surveillance programme on Danish pottery painters. Biological levels and health effects following exposure to soluble or insoluble cobalt compounds in cobalt blue dyes. Sci Total Environ, 150, 95–104
  • Christensen JM, Poulsen OM, Thomsen M. (1993). A short-term cross-over study on oral administration of soluble and insoluble cobalt compounds: sex differences in biological levels. Int Arch Occup Environ Health, 65, 233–40
  • Christova T, Duridanova D, Braykova A, et al. (2001). Heme oxygenase is the main protective enzyme in rat liver upon 6-day administration of cobalt chloride. Arch Toxicol, 75, 445–51
  • Christova TY, Duridanova DB, Setchenska MS. (2002). Enhanced heme oxygenase activity increases the antioxidant defense capacity of guinea pig liver upon acute cobalt chloride loading: comparison with rat liver. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol, 131, 177–84
  • Cichota LC, Moresco RN, Duarte MM, da Silva JE. (2008). Evaluation of ischemia-modified albumin in anemia associated to chronic kidney disease. J Clin Lab Anal, 22, 1–5
  • Clarke MT, Lee PT, Arora A, Villar RN. (2003). Levels of metal ions after small- and large-diameter metal-on-metal hip arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg Br, 85, 913–17
  • Clyne N, Persson B, Havu N, et al. (1990). The intracellular distribution of cobalt in exposed and unexposed rat myocardium. Scand J Clin Lab Invest, 50, 605–9
  • Cobb A, Schmalzreid T. (2006). The clinical significance of metal ion release from cobalt-chromium metal-on-metal hip joint arthroplasty. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. J Eng Med, Part H, 220, 385–98
  • Collecchi P, Esposito M, Brera S, et al. (1986). The distribution of arsenic and cobalt in patients with laryngeal carcinoma. J Appl Toxicol, 6, 287–9
  • Collier CG, Bailey MR, Hodgson A. (1989). An interspecies comparison of the lung clearance of inhaled monodisperse cobalt oxide particles – Part V: lung clearance of inhaled cobalt oxide particles in hamsters, rats and guinea-pigs. J Aerosol Sci, 20, 233–47
  • Collins A, Dusinska M, Franklin M, et al. (1997). Comet assay in human biomonitoring studies: reliability, validation, and applications. Environ Mol Mutagen, 30, 139–46
  • Curtis JR, Goode GC, Herrington J, Urdaneta LE. (1976). Possible cobalt toxicity in maintenance hemodialysis patients after treatment with cobaltous chloride: a study of blood and tissue cobalt concentrations in normal subjects and patients with terminal and renal failure. Clin Nephrol, 5, 61–5
  • Dabeka RW, McKenzie AD. (1995). Survey of lead, cadmium, fluoride, nickel, and cobalt in food composites and estimation of dietary intakes of these elements by Canadians in 1986–1988. J AOAC Intl, 78, 897–909
  • Daley B, Doherty AT, Fairman B, Case CP. (2004). Wear debris from hip or knee replacements causes chromosomal damage in human cells in tissue culture. J Bone Joint Surg Br, 86, 598–606
  • Daniel J, Ziaee H, Pradhan C, McMinn DJ. (2009). Six-year results of a prospective study of metal ion levels in young patients with metal-on-metal hip resurfacings. J Bone Joint Surg Br, 91, 176–9
  • Das S, Vasudevan D. (2005). Biochemical diagnosis of alcoholism. Indian J Clin Biochem, 20, 35–42
  • Davda K, Lali FV, Sampson B, et al. (2011). An analysis of metal ion levels in the joint fluid of symptomatic patients with metal-on-metal hip replacements. J Bone Joint Surg Br, 93, 738–45
  • Davies AP, Sood A, Lewis AC, et al. (2005). Metal-specific differences in levels of DNA damage caused by synovial fluid recovered at revision arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg (British), 87-B, 1439–44
  • Davies KJ, Delsignore ME. (1987). Protein damage and degradation by oxygen radicals. III. Modification of secondary and tertiary structure. J Biol Chem, 262, 9908–13
  • Davis JE, Fields JP. (1958). Experimental production of polycythemia in humans by administration of cobalt chloride. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med, 99, 493–5
  • deSouza RM, Wallace D, Costa ML, et al. (2012). Transplacental passage of metal ions in women with hip resurfacing: No teratogenic effects observed. Hip Intl, 22, 96–9
  • De Boeck M, Lison D, Kirsch-Volders M. (1998). Evaluation of the in vitro direct and indirect genotoxic effects of cobalt compounds using the alkaline comet assay. Influence of interdonor and interexperimental variability. Carcinogenesis, 19, 2021–9
  • De Smet K, Calistri A, De Haan R, et al. (2008). Metal ion measurement as a diagnostic tool to identify problems with metal-on-metal hip resurfacing. J Bone Joint Surg Am, 90, 202–8
  • Diaz D, Bartolo R, Delgadillo DM, et al. (2005). Contrasting effects of Cd2+ and Co2+ on the blocking/unblocking of human Cav3 channels. J Membr Biol, 207, 91–105
  • Domingo JL. (1989). Cobalt in the environment and its toxicological implications. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol, 108, 105–32
  • Domingo JL, Llobet JM, Bernat R. (1984). A study of the effects of cobalt administered orally to rats. Arch Farmacol Toxicol, 10, 13–20
  • Domingo JL, Paternain JL, Llobet JM, Corbella J. (1985). Effects of cobalt on postnatal development and late gestation in rats upon oral administration. Rev Esp Fisiol, 41, 293–8
  • Doorn PF, Campbell PA, Worrall J, et al. (1998). Metal wear particle characterization from metal on metal total hip replacements: transmission electron microscopy study of periprosthetic tissues and isolated particles. J Biomed Mater Res, 42, 103–11
  • DRN (Desert Rain Nutrition). (2012). Liquid ionic Angstrom cobalt. Silt, CO: Desert Rain Nutrition. Available from: www.desertrainnutrition.com/index.php?main_page=product_info&cPath=1_8&products_id=192 [last accessed 19 Jan 2012]
  • Duarte MM, Rocha JB, Moresco RN, et al. (2009). Association between ischemia-modified albumin, lipids and inflammation biomarkers in patients with hypercholesterolemia. Clin Biochem, 42, 666–71
  • Duckham JM, Lee HA. (1976). The treatment of refractory anaemia of chronic renal failure with cobalt chloride. Quart J Med, 45, 277–94
  • Ebreo D, Khan A, El-Meligy M, et al. (2011). Metal ion levels decrease after revision for metallosis arising from large-diameter metal-on-metal hip arthroplasty. Acta Orthop Belg, 77, 777–81
  • EFSA (European Food Safety Authority). (2009). Scientific opinion on the use of cobalt compounds as additives in animal nutrition. EFSA J, 7, 1–45
  • EGVM (Expert Group on Vitamins and Minerals). (2003). Safe upper levels for vitamins and minerals. London: Food Standards Agency
  • Elbetieha A, Al-Thani AS, Al-Thanki RK, et al. (2008). Effects of chronic exposure to cobalt chloride on the fertility and testes in mice. J Appl Biol Sci, 2, 1–6
  • Elinder CG, Friberg L. (1986). Cobalt. In: Friberg L, Nordberg G, Vouk VB, eds. Handbook on the toxicology of metals. Chap. 9. New York: Elsevier Science Pub. Co, 211–32
  • EnghJr CA, MacDonald S, Sritulanondha S, et al. (2009). Metal ion levels after metal-on-metal total hip arthroplasty: a randomized trial. Clin Orthop, 467, 101–11
  • Fantino JR, Py B, Fontecave M, Barras F. (2010). A genetic analysis of the response of Escherichia coli to cobalt stress. Environ Microbiol, 12, 2846–57
  • Farah SB. (1983). The in vivo effect of cobalt chloride on chromosomes. Rev Brasil Gen, 6, 433–42
  • Finley BL, Monnot AD, Gaffney SH, Paustenbach DJ. (2012a). Dose-response relationships for blood cobalt concentrations and health effects: a review of the literature and application of a biokinetic model. J Toxicol Environ Health Part B, 15, 493–523
  • Finley BL, Monnot AD, Paustenbach DJ, Gaffney SH. (2012b). Derivation of a chronic oral reference dose for cobalt. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol, 64, 491–503
  • Fisher JW. (1998). A quest for erythropoietin over nine decades. Ann Rev Pharmacol Toxicol, 38, 1–20
  • Flanagan PR, Haist J, Valberg LS. (1980). Comparative effects of iron deficiency induced by bleeding and a low-iron diet on the intestinal absorptive interactions of iron, cobalt, manganese, zinc, lead and cadmium. J Nutr, 110, 1754–63
  • Forbes JR, Gros P. (2003). Iron, manganese, and cobalt transport by Nramp1 (Slc11a1) and Nramp2 (Slc11a2) expressed at the plasma membrane. Blood, 102, 1884–92
  • Forbes RM, Cooper AR, Mitchell HH. (1954). On the occurrence of beryllium, boron, cobalt, and mercury in human tissues. J Biol Chem, 209, 857–65
  • Franchini I, Bocchi MC, Giaroli C, et al. (1994). Does occupational cobalt exposure determine early renal changes? Sci Total Environ, 150, 149–52
  • Friberg L. (1977). Toxicology of metals: volume II. EPA-600/1–77–022. May 1977. Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Health Effects Research Laboratory
  • Fritzsche J, Borisch C, Schaefer C. (2012). Case report: High chromium and cobalt levels in a pregnant patient with bilateral metal-on-metal hip arthroplasties. Clin Orthop, 470, 2325–31
  • Gal J, Hursthouse A, Tatner P, et al. (2008). Cobalt and secondary poisoning in the terrestrial food chain: data review and research gaps to support risk assessment. Environ Int, 34, 821–38
  • Gardner FH. (1953). The use of cobaltous chloride in the anemia associated with chronic renal disease. J Lab Clin Med, 41, 56–64
  • Garrick MD, Singleton ST, Vargas F, et al. (2006). DMT1: which metals does it transport? Biol Res, 39, 79–85
  • Germain MA, Hatton A, Williams S, et al. (2003). Comparison of the cytotoxicity of clinically relevant cobalt–chromium and alumina ceramic wear particles in vitro. Biomaterials, 24, 469–79
  • Gilbert CJ, Cheung A, Butany J, et al. (2013). Hip pain and heart failure: the missing link. The Canadian Journal of Cardiology. Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0828282X12014067 [last accessed 8 Jan 2013]
  • Gill HS, Grammatopoulos G, Adshead S, et al. (2012). Molecular and immune toxicity of CoCr nanoparticles in MoM hip arthroplasty. Trends Mol Med, 18, 145–55
  • Gillespie W, Frampton C, Henderson R, Ryan P. (1988). The incidence of cancer following total hip replacement. J Bone Joint Surg Br, 70, 539–42
  • Gleason JE, Corrigan DJ, Cox JE, et al. (2011). Analysis of hypoxia and hypoxia-like states through metabolite profiling. PLoS ONE, 6, e24741
  • Goode AE, Perkins JM, Sandison A, et al. (2012). Chemical speciation of nanoparticles surrounding metal-on-metal hips. ChemComm, 48, 8335–7
  • Govender R, De Greef J, Delport R, et al. (2008). Biological variation of ischaemia-modified albumin in healthy subjects. Cardiol J Africa, 19, 141–4
  • Greenberg DM, Copp DH, Cuthbertson EM. (1943). Studies in mineral metabolism with the aid of artificial radioactive isotopes. VII. The distribution and excretion, particularly by way of the bile, or iron, cobalt, manganese. J Biol Chem, 147, 749–56
  • Gregus Z, Klaassen CD. (1986). Disposition of metals in rats: a comparative study of fecal, urinary, and biliary excretion and tissue distribution of eighteen metals. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 85, 24–38
  • Grice HC, Goodman T, Munro IC, et al. (1969). Myocardial toxicity of cobalt in the rat. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 156, 189–94
  • Gross RT, Kriss JP, Spaet TH. (1955). The hematopoietic and goitrogenic effects of cobaltous chloride in patients with sickle cell anemia. Pediatrics, 15, 284–90
  • Haase VH. (2010). Hypoxic regulation of erythropoiesis and iron metabolism. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol, 299, F1–13
  • Hamilton EI. (1994). The geobiochemistry of cobalt. Sci Total Environ, 150, 7–39
  • Haga Y, Cline N, Hatori N, et al. (1996). Impaired myocardial function following chronic cobalt exposure in an isolated rat heart model. Trace Elem Electrolyt, 13, 69–74
  • Hanna PM, Kadiiska MB, Mason RP. (1992). Oxygen-derived free radical and active oxygen complex formation from cobalt(II) chelates in vitro. Chem Res Toxicol, 5, 109–15
  • Harp MJ, Scoular FI. (1952). Cobalt metabolism of young college women on self-selected diets. J Nutr, 47, 67–72
  • Hart AJ, Quinn PD, Sampson B, et al. (2010). The chemical form of metallic debris in tissues surrounding metal-on-metal hips with unexplained failure. Acta Biomater, 6, 4439–46
  • Hartwig A, Snyder RD, Schlepegrell R, Beyersmann, D. (1991). Modulation by Co(II) of UV-induced DNA repair, mutagenesis and sister-chromatid exchanges in mammalian cells. Mutat Res, 248, 177–85
  • Harvie P, Giele H, Fang C, et al. (2008). The treatment of femoral neuropathy due to pseudotumour caused by metal-on-metal resurfacing arthroplasty. Hip Intl, 18, 313–20
  • Hasegawa M, Yoshida K, Wakabayashi H, et al. (2012). Cobalt and chromium ion release after large-diameter metal-on-metal total hip arthroplasty. J Arthroplasty, 27, 990–6
  • Hausen BS, Signor C, Kober H, et al. (2012). Effect of temperature on albumin cobalt binding and its influence on ischemia-modified albumin levels in patients with suspected acute coronary syndrome. Clin Lab, 58, 169–72
  • Hayasaka H, Taniguchi K, Fukai S, Miyasaka M. (2010). Neogenesis and development of the high endothelial venules that mediate lymphocyte trafficking. Cancer Sci, 101, 2302–8
  • Health Canada. (2007). Food and nutrition surveillance. Ottawa, Ontario: Health Canada
  • Heffern MC, Yamamoto N, Holbrook RJ, et al. (2012). Cobalt derivatives as promising therapeutic agents. Curr Opin Chem Biol. Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1367593112001500 [last accessed 29 Dec 2012]
  • Hewitt PJ. (1988). Accumulation of metals in the tissues of occupationally exposed workers. Environ Geochem Health, 10, 113–16
  • Hokin B, Adams M, Ashton J, Louie H. (2004). Comparison of the dietary cobalt intake in three different Australian diets. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr, 13, 289–91
  • Holly RG. (1955). Studies on iron and cobalt metabolism. JAMA, 158, 1349–52
  • Holly RG. (1957). Iron and cobalt in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol, 9, 299–306
  • Horie M, Fujita K, Kato H, et al. (2012). Association of the physical and chemical properties and the cytotoxicity of metal oxide nanoparticles: metal ion release, adsorption ability and specific surface area. Metallomics, 4, 350–60
  • Howie DW, Cain CM, Cornish BL. (1991). Pseudo-abscess of the psoas bursa in failed double-cup arthroplasty of the hip. J Bone Joint Surg Br, 73, 29–32
  • Howitt J, Putz U, Lackovic J, et al. (2009). Divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1) regulation by Ndfip1 prevents metal toxicity in human neurons. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 106, 15489–94
  • Huk OL, Catelas I, Mwale F, et al. (2004). Induction of apoptosis and necrosis by metal ions in vitro. J Arthroplasty, 19, 84–7
  • IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer). (1991). Chlorinated drinking-water, chlorination by-products: some other halogenated compounds, cobalt and cobalt compounds. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Volume 52. Lyon, France: IARC
  • IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer). (2006). Cobalt in hard metals and cobalt sulfate, gallium arsenide, indium phosphide and vanadium pentoxide. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Volume 86. Lyon, France: World Health Organization
  • ICRP (International Commission on Radiological Protection). (1979). Limits for intakes of radionuclides by workers: a report of Committee 2 of the International Commission on Radiological Protection. Addendum. ICRP Publication 30, Part 1, 1979. Oxford: Pergamon Press
  • ICRP (International Commission on Radiological Protection). (1993). Age-dependent doses to members of the public from intake of radionuclides: part 2. Ingestion dose coefficients. A report of a Task Group of Committee 2 of the International Commission on Radiological Protection. Ann ICRP, 23, 1–167
  • Ikeda T, Takahashi K, Kabata T, et al. (2010). Polyneuropathy caused by cobalt–chromium metallosis after total hip replacement. Muscle & Nerve, 42, 140–3
  • IOM (Institute of Medicine). Dietary reference intakes (DRIs): recommended dietary allowances and adequate intakes, vitamins. Available from: http://iom.edu/Activities/Nutrition/SummaryDRIs/~/media/Files/Activity%20Files/Nutrition/DRIs/RDA%20and%20AIs_Vitamin%20and%20Elements.pdf [last accessed 8 Nov 2012]
  • Ishihara N, Yoshida A, Koizumi M. (1987). Metal concentrations in human pancreatic juice. Arch Environ Health, 42, 356–60
  • Jackman AP, Kennedy VC, Bhatia N. (2001). Interparticle migration of metal cations in stream sediments as a factor in toxics transport. J Hazard Mater, 82, 27–41
  • Jacobs JJ, Skipor AK, Patterson LM, et al. (1998). Metal release in patients who have had a primary total hip arthroplasty. A prospective, controlled, longitudinal study. J Bone Joint Surg Am, 80, 1447–58
  • Jacobziner HJ, Raybin HW. (1961). Accidental cobalt poisoning. Arch Pediatr, 78, 200–5
  • Jacquet M. (1949). Huit annes de cobaltotherapie en cardiologie. Arch Mal Coeur Vaiss, 42, 1095–111
  • Jaimet CH, Thode HG. (1955). Thyroid function studies on children receiving cobalt therapy. JAMA, 158, 1353–5
  • Jalan R, Schnurr K, Mookerjee RP, et al. (2009). Alterations in the functional capacity of albumin in patients with decompensated cirrhosis is associated with increased mortality. Hepatology, 50, 555–64
  • Janicek P, Tomas T, Klepac L, et al. (2012). Chronic intoxication with cobalt following revision total hip arthroplasty. Hip Intl. Available from: http://www.hip-int.com/article/chronic-intoxication-with-cobalt-following-revision-total-hip-arthroplasty [last accessed 1 Nov 2012]
  • Jansen HM, Knollema S, van der Duin LV, et al. (1996). Pharmacokinetics and dosimetry of cobalt-55 and cobalt-57. J Nucl Med, 37, 2082–6
  • Jelkmann W, Lundby C. (2011). Blood doping and its detection. Blood, 118, 2395–404
  • Jensen AA, Tuchsen F. (1990). Cobalt exposure and cancer risk. Crit Rev Toxicol, 20, 427–37
  • Kaefer M, Piva SJ, De Carvalho JA, et al. (2010). Association between ischemia modified albumin, inflammation and hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Clin Biochem, 43, 450–4
  • Karovic O, Tonazzini I, Rebola N, et al. (2007). Toxic effects of cobalt in primary cultures of mouse astrocytes. Similarities with hypoxia and role of HIF-1alpha. Biochem Pharmacol, 73, 694–708
  • Kasanen A, Kulonen M, Iisalo E. (1962). Effect of intramuscular cobalt on the anemia of patients with pyelonephritis. Acta Med Scand, 171, 379–83
  • Kasprzak KS, Zastawny TH, North SL, et al. (1994). Oxidative DNA base damage in renal, hepatic, and pulmonary chromatin of rats after intraperitoneal injection of cobalt(II) acetate. Chem Res Toxicol, 7, 329–35
  • Kasten U, Mullenders LH, Hartwig A. (1997). Cobalt(II) inhibits the incision and the polymerization step of nucleotide excision repair in human fibroblasts. Mutat Res, 383, 81–9
  • Katzner M, Schvingt E. (1983). Complications of a total hip prosthesis revealing a renal cell carcinoma. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg, 102, 126–7
  • Ke Q, Costa M. (2006). Hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1). Mol Pharmacol, 70, 1469–80
  • Keegan GM, Learmonth ID, Case CP. (2008). A systematic comparison of the actual, potential, and theoretical health effects of cobalt and chromium exposures from industry and surgical implants. Crit Rev Toxicol, 38, 645–74
  • Keitel HG. (1955). Cobalt and thyroid dysfunction. JAMA, 158, 1390
  • Kerger, BD, Gerads, R, Gurleyuk, H, Thuett, K, Finley, BL, and Paustenbach, DJ. (2013a). Cobalt speciation assay for human serum, Part I: Method for measuring large and small molecular cobalt and protein-binding capacity using size exclusion chromatography with inductively-coupled plasma-mass spectroscopy detection. Toxicol Environ Chemi (accepted)
  • Kerger BD, Tvermoes B, Unice K, et al. (2013b). Cobalt speciation assay for human serum. Part II. Method validation in a study of human volunteers ingesting Cobalt (II) Chloride Dietary Supplement for 90 days. Toxicol Environ Chem (accepted)
  • Kesteloot H, Roelandt J, Willems J, et al. (1968). An enquiry into the role of cobalt in the heart disease of chronic beer drinkers. Circulation, 37, 854–64
  • King LJ, Parke DV. (1987). Induction, inhibition and receptor interactions. In: Vouk VB, Butler GC, Upton AC, et al., eds. Methods for assessing the effects of mixtures of chemicals. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 423–46
  • Kiyici A, Mehmetoglu I, Karaoglan H, et al. (2010). Ischemia-modified albumin levels in patients with end-stage renal disease patients on hemodialysis: does albumin analysis method affect albumin-adjusted ischemia-modified albumin levels? J Clin Lab Anal, 24, 273–7
  • Kopera E, Schwerdtle T, Hartwig A, Bal W. (2004). Co(II) and Cd(II) substitute for Zn(II) in the zinc finger derived from the DNA repair protein XPA, demonstrating a variety of potential mechanisms of toxicity. Chem Res Toxicol, 17, 1452–8
  • Kragh-Hansen U. (1981). Molecular aspects of ligand binding to serum albumin. Pharmacol Rev, 33, 17–53
  • Krantz MJ, Lee D, Donahoo WT, Mehler PS. (2005). The paradox of normal serum albumin in anorexia nervosa: a case report. Int J Eat Disord, 37, 278–80
  • Krasovskii GN, Fridliand SA. (1971). [Experimental data for substantiating the maximum permissible concentration of cobalt in water]. Gig Sanit, 36, 95–6
  • Kriss JP, Carnes WH, Gross RT. (1955). Hypothyroidism and thyroid hyperplasia in patients treated with cobalt. JAMA, 157, 117–21
  • Krupka KM, Serne RJ. (2002). Geochemical factors affecting the behavior of antimony, cobalt, europium, technetium, and uranium in vadose sediments. PNNL-14126. December 2002. Richland, WA: Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
  • Kwon Y-M, Ostlere SJ, McLardy-Smith P, et al. (2011). “Asymptomatic” pseudotumors after metal-on-metal hip resurfacing arthroplasty: prevalence and metal ion study. J Arthroplasty, 26, 511–18
  • Kwon Y-M, Thomas P, Summer B, et al. (2010). Lymphocyte proliferation responses in patients with pseudotumors following metal-on-metal hip resurfacing arthroplasty. J Orthop Res, 28, 444–50
  • Kwon Y-M, Xia Z, Glyn-Jones S, et al. (2009). Dose-dependent cytotoxicity of clinically relevant cobalt nanoparticles and ions on macrophages in vitro. Biomed Mater, 4, 025018
  • Kwong YW, McLardy-Smith P, Gundle R, et al. (2009). Abstract 44. Metal Ion Levels in Asymptomatic Pseudotumours Associated With Metal-on-Metal Hip Resurfacings. 55th Annual Meeting of the Orthopaedic Research Society. Available from: http://www.ors.org/Transactions/55/0044.pdf [last accessed 13 Aug 2012]
  • Kyono H, Kusaka Y, Homma K, et al. (1992). Reversible lung lesions in rats due to short-term exposure to ultrafine cobalt particles. Ind Health, 30, 103–18
  • Ladon D, Doherty A, Newson R, et al. (2004). Changes in metal levels and chromosome aberrations in the peripheral blood of patients after metal-on-metal hip arthroplasty. J Arthroplasty, 19, 78–83
  • Lantin AC, Mallants A, Vermeulen J, et al. (2011). Absence of adverse effect on thyroid function and red blood cells in a population of workers exposed to cobalt compounds. Toxicol Lett, 201, 42–6
  • Lauwerys R, Lison D. (1994). Health risks associated with cobalt exposure – an overview. Sci Total Environ, 150, 1–6
  • Leggett RW. (2008). The biokinetics of inorganic cobalt in the human body. Sci Total Environ, 389, 259–69
  • Legrum W, Stuehmeier G, Netter KJ. (1979). Cobalt as a modifier of microsomal monooxygenases in mice. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 48, 195–204
  • Leigh W, O'Grady P, Lawson EM, et al. (2008). Pelvic pseudotumor: An unusual presentation of an extra-articular granuloma in a well-fixed total hip arthroplasty. J Arthroplasty, 23, 934–8
  • Leonard A, Lauwerys R. (1990). Mutagenicity, carcinogenicity and teratogenicity of cobalt metal and cobalt compounds. Mutat Res, 239, 17–27
  • Leonard S, Gannett PM, Rojanasakul Y, et al. (1998). Cobalt-mediated generation of reactive oxygen species and its possible mechanism. J Inorg Biochem, 70, 239–44
  • Letourneau EG, Jack GC, McCullough RS, Hollins JG. (1972). The metabolism of cobalt by the normal human male: Whole body retention and radiation dosimetry. Health Phys, 22, 451–9
  • Lewis AC, Heard PJ. (2005). The effects of calcium phosphate deposition upon corrosion of CoCr alloys and the potential for implant failure. J Biomed Mater Res Part A, 75, 365–73
  • Lewis AC, Kilburn MR, Papageorgiou I, et al. (2005). Effect of synovial fluid, phosphate-buffered saline solution, and water on the dissolution and corrosion properties of CoCrMo alloys as used in orthopedic implants. J Biomed Mater Res Part A, 73A, 456–67
  • Lewis AC, Ladon D, Heard PJ, et al. (2007). The role of the surface chemistry of CoCr alloy particles in the phagocytosis and DNA damage of fibroblast cells. J Biomed Mater Res A, 82, 363–72
  • Lewis BA, Freyssinet JM, Holbrook JJ. (1978). An equilibrium study of metal ion binding to human plasma coagulation factor XIII. Biochem J, 169, 397–402
  • Lhotka C, Szekeres T, Steffan I, et al. (2003). Four-year study of cobalt and chromium blood levels in patients managed with two different metal-on-metal total hip replacements. J Orthop Res, 21, 189–95
  • Licht A, Oliver M, Rachmilewitz EA. (1972). Optic atrophy following treatment with cobalt chloride in a patient with pancytopenia and hypercellular marrow. Isr J Med Sci, 8, 61–6
  • Lin CTJ. (2007). Section N. Prevalence of supplement use in the past 12 months. 2002 Health and Diet Survey: Topline Frequency Report (November 2007). Silver Spring, MD: U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Available from: http://www.fda.gov/Food/ScienceResearch/ResearchAreas/ConsumerResearch/ucm202786.htm#sectn [last accessed 11 Oct 2012]
  • Lippi G, Brocco G, Salvagno GL, et al. (2005). High-workload endurance training may increase serum ischemia-modified albumin concentrations. Clin Chem Lab Med, 43, 741–4
  • Lippi G, Franchini M, Guidi GC. (2006). Blood doping by cobalt. Should we measure cobalt in athletes? J Occup Med Toxicol, 1, e1–e3
  • Lison, D. (2007). Cobalt. In: Nordberg G, Fowler BA, Nordberg M, Friberg L, eds. Handbook on the toxicology of metals. Chapter 25. Amsterdam, Boston: Academic Press, 511–28
  • Lison D, De Boeck M, Verougstraete V, Kirsch-Volders M. (2001). Update on the genotoxicity and carcinogenicity of cobalt compounds. Occup Environ Med, 58, 619–25
  • Lloyd DR, Carmichael PL, Phillips DH. (1998). Comparison of the formation of 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine and single- and double-strand breaks in DNA mediated by fenton reactions. Chem Res Toxicol, 11, 420–7
  • MacDonald SJ. (2004). Can a safe level for metal ions in patients with metal-on-metal total hip arthroplasties be determined? J Arthroplasty, 19, 71–7
  • MacDonald SJ, McCalden RW, Chess DG, et al. (2003). Metal-on-metal versus polyethylene in hip arthroplasty: a randomized clinical trial. Clin Orthop, 406, 282–96
  • Machado C, Appelbe A, Wood R. (2012). Arthroprosthetic cobaltism and cardiomyopathy. Heart Lung Circ, 21, 759–60
  • Macnair RD, Wynn-Jones H, Wimhurst JA, et al. (2012). Metal ion levels not sufficient as a screening measure for adverse reactions in metal-on-metal hip arthroplasties. J Arthroplasty, 28, 78–83
  • Majtan T, Frerman FE, Kraus JP. (2011). Effect of cobalt on Escherichia coli metabolism and metalloporphyrin formation. Biometals, 24, 335–47
  • Malviya A, Holland JP. (2009). Pseudotumours associated with metal-on-metal hip resurfacing: 10-year Newcastle experience. Acta Orthop Belg, 75, 477–83
  • Manifold I, Platts M, Kennedy A. (1978). Cobalt cardiomyopathy in a patient on maintenance haemodialysis. Br Med J, 2, 1609
  • Mantoura RFC, Dickson A, Riley JP. (1978). The complexation of metals with humic materials in natural waters. Estuar Coast Marine Sci, 6, 387–408
  • Mao X, Wong AA, Crawford RW. (2011). Cobalt toxicity – an emerging clinical problem in patients with metal-on-metal hip prostheses? Med J Aust, 194, 649–51
  • Mao Y, Liu KJ, Jiang JJ, Shi X. (1996). Generation of reactive oxygen species by Co(II) from H2O2 in the presence of chelators in relation to DNA damage and 2′-deoxyguanosine hydroxylation. J Toxicol Environ Health, 47, 61–75
  • Marker M, Grubl A, Riedl O, et al. (2008). Metal-on-metal hip implants: do they impair renal function in the long-term? A 10-year follow-up study Arch Orthop Trauma Surg, 128, 915–19
  • Marti A. (2000). Cobalt-base alloys used in bone surgery. Injury, 31, 18–21
  • Marx G, Chevion M. (1985). Site-specific modification of albumin by free radicals. Reaction with copper(II) and ascorbate. Biochem J, 236, 397–400
  • Mathiesen EB, Ahlbom A, Bermann G, Lindgren JU. (1995). Total hip replacement and cancer: a cohort study. J Bone Joint Surg Br, 77, 345–50
  • Mathur N, Jain GG, Pandey G. (2011). Hepatoxicity of cobalt chloride in albino rat. Pharmacol Online, 2, 179–85
  • Matziolis G, Perka C, Disch A. (2003). Massive metallosis after revision of a fractured ceramic head onto a metal head. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg, 123, 48–50
  • Mawanda M, Ssenkusu JM, Odiit A, et al. (2011). Micro-albuminuria in Ugandan children with sickle cell anaemia: a cross-sectional study. Ann Trop Paediatr, 31, 115–21
  • Maxwell P, Salnikow K. (2004). HIF-1: an oxygen and metal responsive transcription factor. Cancer Biol Ther, 3, 29–35
  • Mayo Clinic. (2012). Evaluation of metal-on-metal wear of orthopedic implants. The role of serum chromium and cobalt analysis. Communique, 37, 1–6
  • Mayo Medical Labs. (2013). Unit Code 80084: Cobalt, Serum. Available from: http://www.mayomedicallaboratories.com/test-catalog/Clinical+and+Interpretive/80084 [last accessed 13 Mar 2013]
  • Meecham HM, Humphrey P. (1991). Industrial exposure to cobalt causing optic atrophy and nerve deafness: a case report. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiat, 54, 374–75
  • Meltzer HM, Brantsaeter AL, Borch-Iohnsen B, et al. (2010). Low iron stores are related to higher blood concentrations of manganese, cobalt and cadmium in non-smoking, Norwegian women in the HUNT 2 study. Environ Res, 110, 497–504
  • MEMI (Mother Earth Minerals Inc.). (2011). Cobalt. Ogden, UT: Mother Earth Minerals Inc. Available from: http://www.meminerals.com/catalog/ProductDetails.asp?ProductID=MINE4S00XEI8Co&DealerID=&Express=1 [last accessed 5 Jan 2011]
  • Merian E. (1985). Introduction on environmental chemistry and global cycles of chromium, nickel, cobalt, beryllium, arsenic, cadmium and selenium, and their derivatives. In: Merian E, ed. Carcinogenic and Mutagenic Metal Compounds: Environmental and Analytical Chemistry and Biological Effects. Current Topics in Environmental and Toxicological Chemistry. New York: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 3–32
  • MHRA (Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency). (2012). All metal-on-metal (MOM) hip replacements. London: MHRA
  • Mineralife. (2012). Cobalt – liquid ionic supplement. Colorado Springs, CO: Mineralife. Available from: http://www.ionicliquidminerallife.com/ionic/Cobalt-Trace-Mineral–b-1029.asp [last accessed 31 July 2012]
  • Minoia C, Sabbioni E, Apostoli P, et al. (1990). Trace element reference values in tissues from inhabitants of the European community. I. A study of 46 elements in urine, blood and serum of Italian subjects. Sci Total Environ, 95, 89–105
  • Mohiuddin SM, Taskar PK, Rheault M, et al. (1970). Experimental cobalt cardiomyopathy. Am Heart J, 80, 532–43
  • Morin Y, Tetu A, Mercier G. (1971). Cobalt cardiomyopathy: clinical aspects. Br Heart J, 33, 175–8
  • Morvai V, Szakmary E, Tatrai E, et al. (1993). The effects of simultaneous alcohol and cobalt chloride administration on the cardiovascular system of rats. Acta Physiol Hung, 81, 253–61
  • Moshtaghie AA, Badii A, Mohammadian T. (2004). The comparative study of binding characteristics of cobalt and iron to human serum transferrin. J Res Med Sci, 9, 250–4
  • Mothes E, Faller P. (2007). Evidence that the principal CoII-binding site in human serum albumin is not at the N-terminus: implication on the albumin cobalt binding test for detecting myocardial ischemia. Biochemistry (Mosc), 46, 2267–74
  • Mucklow ES, Griffin SJ, Delves HT, et al. (1990). Cobalt poisoning in a 6-year-old. Lancet, 335, 981
  • Muramatsu Y, Parr RM. (1988). Concentrations of some trace elements in hair, liver and kidney from autopsy subjects – relationship between hair and internal organs. Sci Total Environ, 76, 29–40
  • Murdock Jr HR. (1959). Studies on the pharmacology of cobalt chloride. J Am Pharm Assoc, 48, 140–2
  • Nandedkar AK, Nurse CE, Friedberg F. (1973). Mn++ binding by plasma proteins. Int J Pept Protein Res, 5, 279–81
  • Nandedkar AKN, Basu PK, Friedberg F. (1972). Co++ binding by plasma proteins. Bioinorg Chem, 2, 149–57
  • Nation JR, Bourgeois AE, Clark DE, Hare MF. (1983). The effects of chronic cobalt exposure on behavior and metallothionein levels in the adult rat. Neurobehav Toxicol Teratol, 5, 9–15
  • Natu S, Sidaginamale RP, Gandhi J, et al. (2012). Adverse reactions to metal debris: histopathological features of periprosthetic soft tissue reactions seen in association with failed metal on metal hip arthroplasties. J Clin Pathol, 65, 409–18
  • Neilsen JL, Abildtrup A, Christensen J, et al. (1998). Laser ablation inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry in combination with gel electrophoresis: a new strategy for speciation of metal binding serum proteins. Spectroch Acta Part B Atom Spectro, 53, 339–45
  • Ng SK, Ebneter A, Gilhotra JS. (2013). Hip-implant related chorio-retinal cobalt toxicity. Indian J Ophthalmol, 61, 35–7
  • Niemela O. (2007). Biomarkers in alcoholism. Clin Chim Acta, 377, 39–49
  • NTP (National Toxicology Program). (1991). Toxicity studies of cobalt sulfate heptahydrate (CAS no. 10026-24-1) in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (inhalation studies). NIH Publication No. 91-3124. Research Triangle Park, NC: National Toxicology Program, U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health
  • NTP (National Toxicology Program). (1998). NTP technical report on the toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of cobalt sulfate heptahydrate (CAS No. 10026-24-1) in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (inhalation studies). NIH Publication No. 98-3961. NTP TR 471. August 1998. Research Triangle Park, NC: National Toxicology Program, U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health
  • Nur E, Biemond BJ, Otten HM, Brandjes DP, Schnog JJ. (2011). Oxidative stress in sickle cell disease; pathophysiology and potential implications for disease management. Am J Hematol, 86, 484–9
  • Nyren O, McLaughlin JK, Gridley G, et al. (1995). Cancer risk after hip replacement with metal implants: a population-based cohort study in Sweden. J Natl Cancer Inst, 87, 28–33
  • Oettl K, Stauber RE. (2007). Physiological and pathological changes in the redox state of human serum albumin critically influence its binding properties. Br J Pharmacol, 151, 580–90
  • Ogawa HI, Sakata K, Inouye T, et al. (1986). Combined mutagenicity of cobalt(II) salt and heteroaromatic compounds in Salmonella typhimurium. Mutat Res, 172, 97–104
  • Oldenburg M, Wegner R, Baur X. (2009). Severe cobalt intoxication due to prosthesis wear in repeated total hip arthroplasty. J Arthroplasty, 24, 825. e15–825.e20
  • Olsen JH, McLaughlin JK, Nyren O, et al. (1999). Hip and knee implantations among patients with osteoarthritis and risk of cancer: a record-linkage study from Denmark. Int J Cancer, 81, 719–22
  • Ott I, Gust R. (2007). Non platinum metal complexes as anti-cancer drugs. Arch Pharm (Weinheim), 340, 117–26
  • Paavolainen P, Pukkala E, Pulkkinen P, Visuri T. (1999a). Cancer incidence after total knee arthroplasty: a nationwide Finnish cohort from 1980 to 1996 involving 9444 patients. Acta Orthop Scand, 70, 609–17
  • Paavolainen P, Pukkala E, Pulkkinen P, Visuri T. (1999b). Cancer incidence in Finnish hip replacement patients from 1980 to 1995: a nationwide cohort study involving 31,651 patients. J Arthroplasty, 14, 272–80
  • Palecek E, Brazdova M, Cernocka H, et al. (1999). Effect of transition metals on binding of p53 protein to supercoiled DNA and to consensus sequence in DNA fragments. Oncogene, 18, 3617–25
  • Paley KR, Sobel ES, Yalow RS. (1958). Effect of oral and intravenous cobaltous chloride on thyroid function. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 18, 850–9
  • Paley KR, Sussman ES. (1963). Absorption of radioactive cobaltous chloride in human subjects. Metabolism, 12, 975–82
  • Palit S, Sharma A, Talukder G. (1991). Chromosomal aberrations induced by cobaltous chloride in mice in vivo. Biol Trace Elem Res, 29, 139–45
  • Palmen N. (2005). Criteria document for Swedish occupational standards: cobalt and cobalt compounds, Arbete och hälsa; 2005:12. Stockholm: Arbetslivsinstitutet
  • Palmes ED, Nelson N, Laskin S, Kuschner M. (1959). Inhalation toxicity of cobalt hydrocarbonyl. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J, 20, 453–68
  • Pandit H, Glyn-Jones S, McLardy-Smith P, et al. (2008a). Pseudotumours associated with metal-on-metal hip resurfacings. J Bone Joint Surg Br, 90, 847–51
  • Pandit H, Vlychou M, Whitwell D, et al. (2008b). Necrotic granulomatous pseudotumours in bilateral resurfacing hip arthoplasties: evidence for a type IV immune response. Virchows Arch, 453, 529–34
  • Papageorgiou I, Brown C, Schins R, et al. (2007). The effect of nano- and micron-sized particles of cobalt–chromium alloy on human fibroblasts in vitro. Biomaterials, 28, 2946–58
  • Paternain JL, Domingo JL, Corbella J. (1988). Developmental toxicity of cobalt in the rat. J Toxicol Environ Health, 24, 193–200
  • Patrick G, Batchelor AL, Stirling C. (1989). An interspecies comparison of the lung clearance of inhaled monodisperse cobalt oxide particles – Part VI: lung clearance of inhaled cobalt oxide particles in SPF fischer rats. J Aerosol Sci, 20, 249–55
  • Patrick L. (2008). Iodine: deficiency and therapeutic considerations. Altern Med Rev, 13, 116–27
  • Paustenbach DJ, Tvermoes BE, Otani JM, et al. (2013). Abstract Number 2556. Cobalt Blood Concentrations and Health Effects in Adult Volunteers During a 90 Day Cobalt Supplement Ingestion Study. Presented at the Society of Toxicology's (SOT) 52nd Annual Meeting, March 10–14, 2013, San Antonio, Texas
  • Pazzaglia UE, Apostoli P, Congiu T, et al. (2011). Cobalt, chromium and molybdenum ions kinetics in the human body: data gained from a total hip replacement with massive third body wear of the head and neuropathy by cobalt intoxication. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg, 131, 1299–308
  • Pedigo NG, George WJ, Anderson MB. (1988). Effects of acute and chronic exposure to cobalt on male reproduction in mice. Reprod Toxicol, 2, 45–53
  • Pelclova D, Sklensky M, Janicek P, Lach K. (2012). Severe cobalt intoxication following hip replacement revision: clinical features and outcome. Clin Toxicol, 50, 262–5
  • Persson B, Carlenor E, Clyne N, et al. (1992). Binding of dietary cobalt to sarcoplasmic reticulum proteins. Scand J Clin Lab Invest, 52, 137–40
  • Petit A, Mwale F, Tkaczyk C, et al. (2005). Induction of protein oxidation by cobalt and chromium ions in human U937 macrophages. Biomaterials, 26, 4416–22
  • Polyzois I, Nikolopoulos D, Michos I, et al. (2012). Local and systemic toxicity of nanoscale debris particles in total hip arthroplasty. J Appl Toxicol, 32, 255–69
  • Pourzal R, Catelas I, Theissmann R, et al. (2011). Characterization of wear particles generated from CoCrMo alloy under sliding wear conditions. Wear, 271, 1658–66
  • Prescott E, Netterstrom B, Faber J, et al. (1992). Effect of occupational exposure to cobalt blue dyes on the thyroid volume and function of female plate painters. Scand J Work Environ Health, 18, 101–4
  • Quinlan GJ, Martin GS, Evans TW. (2005). Albumin: biochemical properties and therapeutic potential. Hepatology, 41, 1211–19
  • Raffn E, Mikkelsen S, Altman DG, et al. (1988). Health effects due to occupational exposure to cobalt blue dye among plate painters in a porcelain factory in Denmark. Scand J Work Environ Health, 14, 378–84
  • Ramos KS, Melchert RB, Chacon E, et al. (2001). Toxic responses of the heart and vascular systems. In: Casarett LJ, Doull J, Klaassen CD, eds. Casarett and Doull's toxicology: the basic science of poisons. 6th ed, Chap. 18. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical Pub. Division, 597–652
  • Ranquet C, Ollagnier-de-Choudens S, Loiseau L, et al. (2007). Cobalt stress in Escherichia coli. The effect on the iron-sulfur proteins. J Biol Chem, 282, 30442–51
  • Reginato AJ. (2005). Gout and other crystal arthropathies. In: Kasper DL, Braunwald E, Fauci AS, et al. eds. Harrison's principles of internal medicine. 16th ed, Chap. 313. New York: McGraw-Hill, Medical Pub. Division, 2046–50
  • Reuber S, Kreuzer M, Kirchgessner M. (1994). Interactions of cobalt and iron in absorption and retention. J Trace Elem Electrolytes Health Dis, 8, 151–8
  • Rizzetti MC, Liberini P, Zarattini G, et al. (2009). Loss of sight and sound. Could it be the hip? Lancet, 373, 1052
  • Robinson JC, James 3rd GW, Kark RM. (1949). The effect of oral therapy with cobaltous chloride on the blood of patients suffering with chronic suppurative infection. N Engl J Med, 240, 749–53
  • Roche M, Layrisse M. (1956). Effect of cobalt on thyroidal uptake of I131. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 16, 831–3
  • Roginski EE, Mertz W. (1977). A biphasic response of rats to cobalt. J Nutr, 107, 1537–42
  • Rohn RJ, Bond WH. (1953). Observations on some hematological effects of cobalt-iron mixtures. Lancet, 73, 317–24
  • Rohn RJ, Bond WH, Klotz LJ. (1953). The effect of cobalt-iron therapy in iron deficiency anemia in infants. J Indiana State Med Assoc, 46, 1253–60
  • Rosenberg AE. (2005). Bones, joints, and soft tissue tumors. In: Kumar V, Abbas AK, Fausto N, eds. Robbins and Cotran pathologic basis of disease. 7th ed, Chap. 26. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders, 1273–324
  • Rousset BA. (2007). How iodide reaches its site of utilisation in the thyroid gland involvement of solute carrier 26A4 (pendrin) and solute carrier 5A8 (apical iodide transporter). European Endocrinol, June:81–2
  • Rubin DI. (2012). Neurologic manifestations of hypothyroidism. Waltham, MA: UpToDate
  • Sadler PJ, Tucker A, Viles JH. (1994). Involvement of a lysine residue in the N-terminal Ni2+ and Cu2+ binding site of serum albumins. Comparison with Co2+, Cd2+ and Al3+. Eur J Biochem, 220, 193–200
  • Sandusky GE, Crawford MP, Roberts ED. (1981). Experimental cobalt cardiomyopathy in the dog: a model for cardiomyopathy in dogs and man. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 60, 263–78
  • Sbarouni E, Georgiadou P, Voudris V. (2011). Ischemia modified albumin changes – review and clinical implications. Clin Chem Lab Med, 49, 177–84
  • Schirrmacher UO. (1967). Case of cobalt poisoning. Br Med J, 1, 544–5
  • Schleisner P. (1956). Cobalt in anaemia. Acta Med Scand, 154, 177–85
  • Schroeder HA, Nason AP, Tipton IH. (1967). Essential trace metals in man: cobalt. J Chronic Dis, 20, 869–90
  • Sederholm T, Kouvalainen K, Lamberg BA. (1968). Cobalt-induced hypothyroidism and polycythemia in lipoid nephrosis. Acta Med Scand, 184, 301–6
  • Seghizzi P, D'Adda F, Borleri D, et al. (1994). Cobalt myocardiopathy. A critical review of literature. Sci Total Environ, 150, 105–9
  • Selden AI, Norberg C, Karlson-Stiber C, Hellstrom-Lindberg E. (2007). Cobalt release from glazed earthenware: observations in a case of lead poisoning. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol, 23, 129–31
  • Shi X, Dalal NS, Kasprzak KS. (1993). Generation of free radicals from model lipid hydroperoxides and H2O2 by Co(II) in the presence of cysteinyl and histidyl chelators. Chem Res Toxicol, 6, 277–83
  • Shibuya I, Douglas WW. (1992). Calcium channels in rat melanotrophs are permeable to manganese, cobalt, cadmium, and lanthanum, but not to nickel: evidence provided by fluorescence changes in fura-2-loaded cells. Endocrinology, 131, 1936–41
  • Shrivastava K, Bansal A, Singh B, et al. (2010). Sub-chronic oral toxicity study in Sprague-Dawley rats with hypoxia mimetic cobalt chloride towards the development of promising neutraceutical for oxygen deprivation. Exp Toxicol Pathol, 62, 489–96
  • Shrivastava VK, David CV, Khare N, Khare N. (1996). Cobalt chloride induced histopathological changes in thyroid gland of female mice, Mus musculus (P.) Pollut Res, 15, 307–9
  • Sidell CM, Erickson JG, Mc CJ. (1958). Cobalt folliculitis. Calif Med, 88, 20–1
  • Signorello LB, Ye W, Fryzek JP, et al. (2001). Nationwide study of cancer risk among hip replacement patients in Sweden. J Natl Cancer Inst, 93, 1405–10
  • Simesen M. (1939). The fate of cobalt after oral administration of metallic cobalt and subcutaneous injection of carbonatotetraminecobalt chloride, with remarks on the quantitative estimation of cobalt in organic materials. Arch Int Pharmacodyn Ther, 62, 347–56
  • Simonsen LO, Brown AM, Harbak H, et al. (2011a). Cobalt uptake and binding in human red blood cells. Blood Cells Mol Dis, 46, 266–76
  • Simonsen LO, Harbak H, Bennekou P. (2011b). Passive transport pathways for Ca(2+) and Co(2+) in human red blood cells. (57)Co(2+) as a tracer for Ca(2+) influx. Blood Cells Mol Dis, 47, 214–25
  • Simonsen LO, Harbak H, Bennekou P. (2012). Cobalt metabolism and toxicology – a brief update. Sci Total Environ, 432C, 210–15
  • Singh M, Shukla D, Thomas P, et al. (2010a). Hypoxic preconditioning facilitates acclimatization to hypobaric hypoxia in rat heart. J Pharm Pharmacol, 62, 1729–39
  • Singh M, Shukla D, Thomas P, et al. (2010b). Hypoxic preconditioning facilitates acclimatization to hypobaric hypoxia in rat heart. J Pharm Pharmacol, 62, 1729–39
  • Singh PP, Junnarkar AY. (1991). Behavioral and toxic profile of some essential trace metal salts in mice and rats. Indian J Pharmacol, 23, 153–9
  • Smith AJ, Dieppe P, Porter M, et al. (2012). Risk of cancer in first seven years after metal-on-metal hip replacement compared with other bearings and general population: linkage study between the National Joint Registry of England and Wales and hospital episode statistics. BMJ, 344, e2383–e2394
  • Smith IC, Carson BL. (1981). Section C. Geochemistry and Occurence. Section D. Environmental Transport. In: IC Smith, BL Carson, eds. Trace metals in the environment. Volume 6 – Cobalt: an appraisal of environmental exposure. Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Science Publishers, 21–41
  • Smith T, Edmonds CJ, Barnaby CF. (1972). Absorption and retention of cobalt in man by whole-body counting. Health Phys, 22, 359–67
  • Sorbie J, Olatunbosun D, Corbett WE, Valberg LS. (1971). Cobalt excretion test for the assessment of body iron stores. Can Med Assoc J, 104, 777–82
  • Speijers GJ, Krajnc EI, Berkvens JM, van Logten MJ. (1982). Acute oral toxicity of inorganic cobalt compounds in rats. Food Chem Toxicol, 20, 311–14
  • Stea S, Visentin M, Granchi D, et al. (2000). Sister chromatid exchange in patients with joint prostheses. J Arthroplasty, 15, 772–7
  • Steens W, von Foerster G, Katzer A. (2006). Severe cobalt poisoning with loss of sight after ceramic-metal pairing in a hip – a case report. Acta Orthop, 77, 830–2
  • Stokinger HE. (1962). The metals (excluding lead). In: Patty FA, Fassett DW, Irish DD, eds. Industrial hygiene and toxicology. Volume II: toxicology. 2nd Revised ed, Chap. 27. New York: Wiley, 987–1188
  • Stokinger HE. (1981). The metals. In: Patty FA, Clayton GD, Clayton FE, eds. Patty's industrial hygiene and toxicology. Volume II A: toxicology. 3rd Revised ed, Chap. 29. New York: Wiley, 1493–2060
  • Stuckert J, Nedorost S. (2008). Low-cobalt diet for dyshidrotic eczema patients. Contact Dermatitis, 59, 361–5
  • Sullivan J, Parker M, Carson SB. (1968). Tissue cobalt content in “beer drinkers' myocardiopathy”. J Lab Clin Med, 71, 893–911
  • Sullivan JF, Egan JD, George RP. (1969). A distinctive myocardiopathy occurring in Omaha, Nebraska: clinical aspects. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 156, 526–43
  • Sunda WG, Lewis JAM. (1978). Effect of complexation by natural organic ligands on the toxicity of copper to a unicellular alga, Monochrysis lutheri. Limnol Oceanogr, 23, 870–6
  • Suzuki Y, Shimizu H, Nagae Y, et al. (1993). Micronucleus test and erythropoiesis: effect of cobalt on the induction of micronuclei by mutagens. Environ Mol Mutagen, 22, 101–6
  • Swennen B, Buchet JP, Stanescu D, et al. (1993). Epidemiological survey of workers exposed to cobalt oxides, cobalt salts, and cobalt metal. Br J Ind Med, 50, 835–42
  • Szakmary E, Ungvary G, Hudak A, et al. (2001). Effects of cobalt sulfate on prenatal development of mice, rats, and rabbits, and on early postnatal development of rats. J Toxicol Environ Health. Part A, 62, 367–86
  • Szkudlinski MW, Fremont V, Ronin C, Weintraub BD. (2002). Thyroid-stimulating hormone and thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor structure-function relationships. Physiol Rev, 82, 473–502
  • Talbot RJ, Morgan A. (1989). An interspecies comparison of the lung clearance of inhaled monodisperse cobalt oxide particles – Part VIII: lung clearance of inhaled cobalt oxide particles in mice. J Aerosol Sci, 20, 261–5
  • Taylor A, Marks V, Shabaan AA, et al. (1977). Cobalt-induced lipaemia and erythropoiesis. Clinical Chemistry and Chemical Toxicology of Metals: Proceedings of the First International Symposium; Monte Carlo, 2–5 March, 1977
  • Taylor DM. (1962). The absorption of cobalt from the gastrointestinal tract of the rat. Phys Med Biol, 6, 445–51
  • Teraoka H. (1981). Distribution of 24 elements in the internal organs of normal males and the metallic workers in Japan. Arch Environ Health, 36, 155–65
  • Tevetoglu F. (1956). The treatment of common anemias in infancy and childhood with a cobalt-iron mixture; including a case report of iron deficiency anemia due to geophagia. J Pediatr, 49, 46–55
  • TGA (Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing Therapeutic Goods Administration). (2012). Metal-on-metal hip replacement implants. Information for general practitioners, orthopaedic surgeons and other health professionals. Available from: http://www.tga.gov.au/hp/information-devices-mom-hip-implants.htm [last accessed 26 Sep 2012]
  • Thaunat O, Kerjaschki D, Nicoletti A. (2006). Is defective lymphatic drainage a trigger for lymphoid neogenesis? Trends Immunol, 27, 27441–5
  • Thomas RG, Furchner JE, London JE, et al. (1976). Comparative metabolism of radionuclides in mammals – X. Retention of tracer-level cobalt in the mouse, rat, monkey and dog. Health Phys, 31, 323–33
  • Thomson AB, Valberg LS. (1972). Intestinal uptake of iron, cobalt, and manganese in the iron-deficient rat. Am J Physiol, 223, 1327–29
  • Thomson AB, Valberg LS, Sinclair DG. (1971). Competitive nature of the intestinal transport mechanism for cobalt and iron in the rat. J Clin Invest, 50, 2384–94
  • Tietz NW, Andresen BD, eds. (1986). Textbook of clinical chemistry. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders
  • Tipping E, Lofts S, Lawlor AJ. (1998). Modelling the chemical speciation of trace metals in the surface waters of the Humber system. Sci Total Environ, 210–211, 63–77
  • Tipton IH, Cook MJ. (1963). Trace elements in human tissue. II. Adult subjects from the United States. Health Phys, 9, 103–45
  • Tipton IH, Schroeder HA, Perry Jr HM, Cook MJ. (1965). Trace elements in human tissue. Part III. Subjects from Africa, the near and far East and Europe. Health Phys, 11, 403–51
  • Tower SS. (2010a). Arthroprosthetic cobaltism: neurological and cardiac manifestations in two patients with metal-on-metal arthroplasty: a case report. J Bone Joint Surg Am, 92, 2847–51
  • Tower SS. (2010b). Cobalt toxicity in two hip replacement patients. State of Alaska Epidemiology Bulletin, 14, 1
  • TPMC (Technology Planning and Management Corporation). (2002). Final: report on carcinogens background for cobalt sulfate. Prepared for the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service. 2002 April 17, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services PH, ed. S. Durham, NC: Technology Planning and Management Corporation
  • Tvermoes B, Finley BL, Otani J, et al. (2013a). Abstract number 2555. Effects of cobalt dietary supplementation on cobalt body burden, steady-state levels and physiological changes associated with cobalt dietary supplementation. Presented at the Society of Toxicology (SOT) 52nd Annual Meeting; March 10–14, 2013, San Antonio, Texas
  • Tvermoes BE, Finley BL, Unice KM, et al. (2013b). Cobalt whole blood concentrations in healthy adult male volunteers following two-weeks of ingesting a cobalt supplement. Food Chem Toxicol, 53, 417–24
  • Unice K, Monnot A, Gaffney SH, et al. (2012). Inorganic cobalt supplementation: prediction of cobalt levels in whole blood and urine using a biokinetic model. Food Chem Toxicol, 50, 2456–61
  • Urban RM, Jacobs JJ, Tomlinson MJ, et al. (2000). Dissemination of wear particles to the liver, spleen, and abdominal lymph nodes of patients with hip or knee replacement. J Bone Joint Surg Am, 82, 457–76
  • USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency). (2008). Provisional peer reviewed toxicity values for cobalt (CASRN 7440-48-4). Cincinnati, OH: Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
  • USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency). (2011). Recommended use of body weight 3/4 as the default method in derivation of the oral reference dose. EPA/100/R11/00010 Final. Washington, DC: Environmental Protection Agency
  • USFDA (United States Food and Drug Administration). (2012). Follow-up for asymptomatic patients.: Silver Spring, MD: US Food and Drug. Available from: Administration. http://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/ProductsandMedicalProcedures/ImplantsandProsthetics/MetalonMetalHipImplants/ucm241667.htm#follow-up-symptomatic [last accessed 13 Aug 2012]
  • USFDA (United States Food and Drug Administration). (2013). Information about soft tissue imaging and metal ion testing. Silver Spring, MD: US Food and Drug Administration. Available from: http://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/ProductsandMedicalProcedures/ImplantsandProsthetics/MetalonMetalHipImplants/ucm331971.htm#metal [last accessed 19 Feb 2013]
  • USGS (United States Geological Survey). (2011). Mineral commodity summaries 2011. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Geological Survey
  • Valberg LS, Ludwig J, Olatunbosun D. (1969). Alteration in cobalt absorption in patients with disorders of iron metabolism. Gastroenterology, 56, 241–51
  • Van Goethem F, Lison D, Kirsch-Volders M. (1997). Comparative evaluation of the in vitro micronucleus test and the alkaline single cell gel electrophoresis assay for the detection of DNA damaging agents: genotoxic effects of cobalt powder, tungsten carbide and cobalt-tungsten carbide. Mutat Res, 392, 31–43
  • Veien NK, Hattel T, Justesen O, Norholm A. (1987). Oral challenge with nickel and cobalt in patients with positive patch tests to nickel and/or cobalt. Acta Derm Venereol, 67, 321–5
  • Vendittoli PA, Mottard S, Roy AG, et al. (2007). Chromium and cobalt ion release following the Durom high carbon content, forged metal-on-metal surface replacement of the hip. J Bone Joint Surg Br, 89, 441–8
  • Venugopal B, Luckey TD. (1978). Toxicity of group VIII metals. In: B Venugopal, TD Luckey, eds. Metal toxicity in mammals: chemical toxicity of metals and metalloids. Vol. 2. Chap. 8. New York: Plenum Press, 273–305
  • Vigneault B, Gopalapillai Y. (2009). Literature review report: interactions between trace metals and aquatic organisms. Ottawa, ON: Natural Resources Canada
  • Visuri T, Borg H, Pulkkinen P, et al. (2010a). A retrospective comparative study of mortality and causes of death among patients with metal-on-metal and metal-on-polyethylene total hip prostheses in primary osteoarthritis after a long-term follow-up. BMC Musculoskel Dis, 11, 1–8
  • Visuri T, Koskenvuo M. (1991). Cancer risk after McKee-Farrar total hip replacement. Orthopedics, 14, 137–42
  • Visuri T, Pukkala E, Paavolainen P, et al. (1996). Cancer risk after metal on metal and polyethylene on metal total hip arthroplasty. Clin Orthop, 329, S280–9
  • Visuri T, Pukkala E, Pulkkinen P, Paavolainen P. (2003). Decreased cancer risk in patients who have been operated on with total hip and knee arthroplasty for primary osteoarthrosis: a meta-analysis of 6 Nordic cohorts with 73,000 patients. Acta Orthop Scand, 74, 351–60
  • Visuri T, Pulkkinen P, Paavolainen P. (2006a). Malignant tumors at the site of total hip prosthesis. Analytic review of 46 cases. J Arthroplasty, 21, 311–23
  • Visuri T, Pulkkinen P, Paavolainen P, Pukkala E. (2010b). Cancer risk is not increased after conventional hip arthroplasty. A nationwide study from the Finnish Arthroplasty Register with follow-up of 24,636 patients for a mean of 13 years. Acta Orthop, 81, 77–81
  • Visuri TI, Pukkala E, Pulkkinen P, Paavolainen P. (2006b). Cancer incidence and causes of death among total hip replacement patients: a review based on Nordic cohorts with a special emphasis on metal-on-metal bearings. Proc Inst Mech l Eng Part H J Eng Med, 220, 399–407
  • Walter LR, Marel E, Harbury R, Wearne J. (2008). Distribution of chromium and cobalt ions in various blood fractions after resurfacing hip arthroplasty. J Arthroplasty, 23, 814–21
  • Watanabe H, Gaide O, Petrilli V, et al. (2007). Activation of the IL-1beta-processing inflammasome is involved in contact hypersensitivity. J Invest Dermatol, 127, 1956–63
  • Weakly JN. (1973). The action of cobalt ions on neuromuscular transmission in the frog. J Physiol, 234, 597–612
  • Webb M. (1962). The biological action of cobalt and other metals. III. Chelation of cations by dihydrolipoic acid. Biochim Biophys Acta, 65, 47–65
  • Webb M. (1964). The biological action of cobalt and other metals. IV. Inhibition of alpha-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase. Biochim Biophys Acta, 89, 431–46
  • WHO (World Health Organization). (2006). Cobalt and inorganic cobalt compounds. Concise International Chemical Assessment Document: 69. Geneva: World Health Organization
  • Wiberg GS. (1968). The effect of cobalt ions on energy metabolism in the rat. Can J Biochem, 46, 549–54
  • Wiberg GS, Devlin WF, Stephenson NR, et al. (1962). A comparison of the thyroxine: tri-iodothyronine content and biological activity of thyroid from various species. J Pharm Pharmacol, 14, 777–83
  • Wiberg GS, Munro IC, Meranger JC, et al. (1969). Factors affecting the cardiotoxic potential of cobalt. Clin Toxicol, 2, 257–71
  • Wiberg GS, Munro IC, Morrison AB. (1967). Effect of cobalt ions on myocardial metabolism. Can J Biochem, 45, 1219–23
  • Willert HG, Buchhorn GH, Fayyazi A, et al. (2005). Metal-on-metal bearings and hypersensitivity in patients with artificial hip joints: a clinical and histomorphological study. J Bone Joint Surg Am, 87, 28–36
  • Wolf J, Levy IJ. (1954). Treatment of sickle cell anemia with cobalt chloride. Arch Intern Med, 93, 387–96
  • Wright JV. (2005). Bio-identical steroid hormone replacement: selected observations from 23 years of clinical and laboratory practice. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 1057, 506–24
  • Yamagata N, Murata S, Torii T. (1962). The cobalt content of human body. J Radiat Res (Tokyo), 3, 4–8
  • Yang J, Black J. (1994). Competitive binding of chromium, cobalt and nickel to serum proteins. Biomaterials, 15, 262–8
  • Yuan Y, Hilliard G, Ferguson T, Millhorn DE. (2003). Cobalt inhibits the interaction between hypoxia-inducible factor-alpha and von Hippel-Lindau protein by direct binding to hypoxia-inducible factor-alpha. J Biol Chem, 278, 15911–16
  • Yukawa M, Amano K, Suzuki-Yasumoto M, Terai M. (1980). Distribution of trace elements in the human body determined by neutron activation analysis. Arch Environ Health, 35, 36–44
  • Zak VI. (1968). Mechanism of the goitrogenic action of cobalt. Bull Exp Biol Med, 65, 283–86
  • Zhang H, Van Den Berg CMG, Wollast R. (1990). The determination of interactions of cobalt (II) with organic compounds in seawater using cathodic stripping voltammetry. Marine Chemistry, 28, 285–300
  • Zipfizz Corp. (2011). Energy shot. Mill Creek, WA: Zipfizz Corp. Available from: http://www.zipfizz.com/es2.html [last accessed 11 Oct 2012]
  • Zywiel MG, Brandt JM, Overgaard CB, et al. (2013). Fatal cardiomyopathy after revision total hip replacement for fracture of a ceramic liner. J Bone Joint Surg Br, 95, 31–7

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.