1,903
Views
134
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Article

Food additive carrageenan: Part II: A critical review of carrageenan in vivo safety studies

Pages 244-269 | Received 06 May 2013, Accepted 30 Oct 2013, Published online: 28 Jan 2014

References

  • Abraham R, Benitz KF, Mankes R, Rosenblum I. (1985). Chronic and subchronic effects of various forms of carrageenan in rats. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf, 10, 173–83
  • Abraham R, Fabian RJ, Golberg L, Coulston F. (1974). Role of lysosomes in carrageenan-induced cecal ulceration. Gastroenterology 67, 1169--81
  • Abraham R, Golberg L, Coulston F. (1972). Uptake and storage of degraded carrageenan in lysosomes of reticuloendothelial cells of the Rhesus monkey, Macaca Mulatta. Exp Mol Path, 17, 77–93
  • Albany Medical College, Institute of Comparative and Human Toxicology. (1975). Unpublished reports
  • Albany Medical College, Institute of Comparative and Human Toxicology. (1983). Unpublished reports
  • American Academy of Pediatrics. (2000). Hypoallergenic infant formulas. Committee on Nutrition. Pediatrics, 106, 346–9
  • Arakawa S, Ito M, Tejima S. (1988). Promoter function of carrageenan on development of colonic tumors induced by 1,2-dimethylhydrazine in rats. J Nutr Sci Vitamin, 34, 577–85
  • Arakawa S, Okumura M, Yamada S, et al. (1986). Enhancing effect of carrageenan on the induction of rat colonic tumors by 1,2-dimethylhydrazine and its relation to B-glucuronidase activities in feces and other tissues. J Nutr Sci Vitamin, 32, 481–5
  • Bailey DE, Morgareidge K. (1973). Teratologic evaluation of carrageenan salts in rats and hamsters. Food and Drug Research Laboratory Project No. N-73-02, Waverly, NY, USA (Unpublished)
  • Bash JA, Cochran FR. (1980). Carrageenan-induced suppression of T lymphocyte proliferation in the rat: in vitro production of a suppressor factor by peritoneal macrophages. J Reticuloendothel Soc, 28, 203–11
  • Bash JA, Vago JR. (1980). Carrageenan-induced suppression of T lymphocyte proliferation in the rat: in vivo suppression induced by oral administration. J Reticuloendothel Soc, 28, 213–21
  • Benitz KF, Golberg L, Coulston F. (1973). Intestinal effects of carrageenans in the Rhesus monkey. Food Cosmet Toxicol, 11, 565–75
  • Bhattacharyya S, O-Sullivan I, Katyal S, et al. (2012). Exposure to the common food additive carrageenan leads to glucose intolerance, insulin resistance and inhibition of insulin signalling in HepG2 cells and C57BL/6J mice. Diabetologia, 55, 194–203
  • Bixler H. (2013). Food safety: refuting myths about carrageenan. Food Processing. Available from http://www.foodprocessing.com/articles/2013/refuting-myths-about-carrageenan.html
  • Blakemore WR, Harpell AR. (2010). Carrageenan. In: Imeson A, ed. Food Stabilisers, Thickeners and Gelling Agent, Chapter 5. Wiley-Blackwell, Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Published Online, 73--94
  • Bonfils S. (1970). Carrageenan and the Human Gut. Lancet, 2, 414
  • Borsches MW, Barrett-Reis B, Baggs GE, Williams TA. (2002). Growth of healthy term infants fed a powdered casein hydrolysate-based formula (CHF). FASEB J, 16, A66 (Abstract 497.7)
  • Canada Gazette (2004). Vol. 138, No. 20. May 15, Item A.5. Available from: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/securit/addit/list/4-emulsif-eng.php
  • Capron I, Yvon M, Muller G. (1996). In vitro gastric stability of carrageenan. Food Hydrocolloids, 10, 239–44
  • Carthew P. (2002). Safety of carrageenan in foods. Correspond Environ Health Perspect, 110, A176
  • Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). Title 21 – Food and Drugs, Part 172.620 Carrageenan
  • Cohen S, Ito N. (2002). A critical review of the toxicological effects of carrageenan and processed eucheuma seaweed on the gastrointestinal tract. Crit Rev Toxicol, 32, 413–44
  • Collins TFX, Black TN, Prew JH. (1977a). Long-term effects of calcium carrageenan in rats. I. Effects on reproduction. Food Cosmet Toxicol, 15, 533–8
  • Collins TFX, Black TN, Prew JH. (1977b). Long-term effects of calcium carrageenan in rats. II. Effects on fetal development. Food Cosmet Toxicol, 15, 539–45
  • Commission Directive. (2004). 2004/45/EC of 16 April 2004 amending Directive 96/77/EC laying down specific purity criteria on food additives other than colours and sweetners. Official J Eur Union, 47, 20 April 2004, L113/19--L113/21
  • Commission Regulation. (2012). 2031/2012 of 9 March, 2012. Official J Eur Union L83, 55, L 83/140–1
  • Corpet DE, Tache S, Preclaire M. (1997). Carrageenan given as a jelly, does not initiate, but promotes the growth of aberrant crypt foci in the rat colon. Cancer Lett, 114, 53–5
  • Coste M, Dubuquoy C, Tome D. (1989). Effect of systemic and orally administered iota-carrageenan on ovalbumin-specific antibody response in the rat. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol, 88, 474–6
  • Dewar ET, Maddy ML. (1970). Faecal excretion of degraded and native carrageenan by the young rat. J Pharm Pharmacol, 22, 791–3
  • Donnelly ET, Bardwell H, Thomas GA, et al. (2004a). Modulation of N-methyl-N-nitrosourea-induced crypt restricted metallothionein immunopositivity in mouse colon by a non-genotoxic diet-related chemical. Carcinogenesis, 25, 847–55
  • Donnelly ET, Bardwell H, Thomas GA, et al. (2004b). Colonic crypt stem cell mutation indices (CCSCMI) in a predictive risk assessment model for diet related chemicals. Gastroenterology, 126, A505
  • Donnelly ET, Bardwell H, Thomas GA, et al. (2004c). Dietary interactions and inception of colonic tumourigenesis. Gut, 53, A121
  • Donnelly ET, Bardwell H, Thomas GA, et al. (2005). Metallothioein crypt-restricted immunopositivity indices (MTCRII) correlate with aberrant crypt foci (ACF) in mouse colon. Br J Cancer, 92, 2160–5
  • Elsenhans B, Caspary WF. (1989). Differential changes in the urinary excretion of two orally administered polyethylene glycol markers (PEG 900 and PEG 4000) in rats after feeding various carbohydrate gelling agents. J Nutr, 119, 380–7
  • Engster M, Abraham R. (1976). Cecal response to different molecular weights and types of carrageenan in the guinea pig. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 38, 265–82
  • European Commission (2003). Health & Consumer Protection Directorate-General, Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food on Carrageenan, SCF/CS/ADD/EMU/199 Final, Available from: http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/scf/out164_en.pdf
  • Federal Register (FR). (1961). 26FR 9711
  • Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2007). Combined Compendium of Food Additive Specifications; CGN – 68th session of JECFA, 2007
  • Food and Drug Administration (FDA). (1972a). Mutagenic evaluation of compound FDA 71-3, sodium carrageenan. PB 254 471
  • Food and Drug Administration (FDA). (1972b). Study of mutagenic effects of calcium carrageenan (FDA No. 71-5). PB 221 820
  • Food and Drug Administration. (1972c). Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) Food Ingredients – Carrageenan. PB 221 206
  • Food and Drug Administration (FDA). (1973). Evaluation of the health aspects of carrageenan as a food ingredient. PB 266 877
  • Food and Drug Administration (FDA). (1975). Mutagenic evaluation of compounds FDA 71-3, 977007-70-7, Sodium Carrageenan (Viscarin) PB 254 515
  • Food and Drug Administration (FDA). (2000). Toxicological principles for the safety assessment of food ingredients: Redbook. Available from: http://www.fda.gov/food/guidanceregulation/guidancedocumentsregulatoryinformation/ingredientsadditivesgraspackaging/ucm2006826.htm
  • Food and Drug Administration (FDA). (2012). Letter to Dr. Joanne K. Tobacman, Docket FDA-2008-8P-0347, dated June 11, 2012, from Ted Eklin, Acting Deputy Director for Operations, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition
  • Food and Drug Research Laboratories, Inc. (FDRL). (1972a). Teratologic Evaluation of FDA 71-3 (Sodium Carrageenate). Prepared for the Food and Drug Administration, PB 221 812
  • Food and Drug Research Laboratories, Inc. (FDRL). (1972b). Teratologic Evaluation of FDA 71-5 (Calcium Carrageenate). Prepared for the Food and Drug Administration, PB 221 787
  • Food Chemicals Codex. (2013). FCC monographs, 8th ed., 219–28
  • Friedman I, Douglas CD. (1960). Unpublished summary report submitted by Marine Colloids, Inc
  • Frossard CP, Hauser C, Eigenmann PA. (2001). Oral carrageenan induces antigen-dependent oral tolerance: prevention of Anaphylaxis and induction of lymphocyte anergy in a murine model of food allergy. Pediatr Res, 49, 417–22
  • Glicksman M. (ed.) (1969). Seaweed extracts. In: Gum Technology in the Food Industry, Chapter 8, Academic Press, 214--235
  • Grasso P, Gangolli SD, Butterworth KR, Wright MG. (1975). Studies on degraded carrageenan in rats and guinea-pigs. Food Cosmet Toxicol, 11, 195--201
  • Grasso P, Sharratt M, Carpanini FMB, Gangolli SD. (1973). Studies on carrageenan and large-bowel ulceration in mammals. Food Cosmet Toxicol, 11, 555–64
  • Hagiwara A, Miyashia K, Nakanishi T, et al. (2001). Lack of tumor promoting effects of carrageenan on1,2-dimethylhydrazine-induced colorectal carcinogenesis in male F344 rats. J Toxicol Pathol, 14, 37–43
  • Harmuth-Hoene AE, Schelenz R. (1980). Effect of dietary fiber on mineral absorption in growing rats. J Nutr, 110, 1774–84
  • Hawkins WW, Yaphe WW. (1965). Carrageenan as a dietary constituent of the rat: faecal excretion, nitrogen absorption and growth. Can J Biochem, 43, 479–84
  • Hirono I, Sumi Y, Kuhara K, Miyakawa M. (1981). Effect of degraded carrageenan on the intestine in germfree rats. Toxicol Lett, 8, 207--12
  • Hopkins J. (1981). Carcinogenicity of carrageenan. Food Cosmet Toxicol, 19, 779–88
  • International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) Monograph. (1983). Carrageenan, 31, 79–94
  • International Programme on Chemical Safety in cooperation with the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). (1987). Principles for the safety assessment of food additives and contaminants in food, environmental heath criteria 70. Geneva: WHO
  • International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) Environmental Health Criteria 240. (2009). Principals and methods for the risk assessment of chemicals in food. Available from http://www.who.int/foodsafety/chem/principles/en/index1.html
  • Ishioka T, Kuwabara N, Oohashi Y, Wakabayashi K. (1986). Induction of colorectal tumors in rats by sulfated polysaccharides. Crit Rev Toxicol, 17, 215--44
  • Jackson LI. (1997). Salmonella mutation test (Ames test) with a semi-refined carrageenan from two sources. Unpublished BIBAR Report No. 3160/2/1/97 from BIBRA International, Carshalton, Surrey, United Kingdom. Submitted to WHO by Dr. H.J. Bixler, Seaweed Industry Association of the Phillipines, Searsport, Maine, United States
  • Japan Food Additives Association (2009). Japan’s Specifications for Food Additives, 8th ed., the Ministry of Health and Welfare, 344
  • JECFA: Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. (1974). Toxicological evaluation of some food additives including anticaking agents, antimicrobials, antioxidants, emulsifiers and thickening agents. WHO Food Add Ser, 5, 386–410
  • JECFA: Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. (1999). Toxicological evaluation of certain food additives, including anticaking agents, antimicroials, antioxidants, emulsifiers and thickening agents. WHO Food Addi Ser, 42, 147–69
  • JECFA: Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (2002). Fifty-seventh report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. WHO Technical Report Series 909
  • JECFA: Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. (2008). Sixty-eighth Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives; Evaluation of Certain Food Additives and Contaminants. WHO Technical Report Series, 947, 32–7
  • Kasper H, Rabast U, Fassl H, Fehle F. (1979). The effect of dietary fiber on the postprandial serum vitamin A concentration in man. Am J Clin Nutr, 32, 1837–49
  • Kitano A. (1979). Study of experimental ulcerative colitis induced by administration of carrageenan into rabbits. J Osaka Cty Med Cntr, 28, 537--55
  • Kitano, A, Kobayashi, K, Oshiumi, H, et al. (1981). Studies of experimental ulcerative colitis induced by carrageenan in rabbits. Jap J Gastro, 78, 2104--11
  • Koletzko B, Baker S, Cleghorn G, et al. (2005). Global standard for the composition of infant formula: recommendations of an ESPGHAN coordinated international expert group. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr, 41, 584–99
  • Koo J, Weaver CM, Neylan MJ. (1993). Solubility of calcium salts and carrageenan used in infant formulas did not influence calcium absorption in rats. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr, 17, 298–302
  • MacIntosh, FC. (1941). A colorimetric method for the standardization of heparin preparations. Biochem J, 35, 778–82
  • Mallett AK, Rowland IR, Bearne CA, Nicklin S. (1985). Influence of dietary carrageenans on microbial biotransformation activities in the cecum of rodents and on gastrointestinal immune status in the rat. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 78, 377–85
  • Mallett AK, Wise A, Rowland IR. (1984). Hydrocolloid food additives and rat caecal microbial enzyme activities. Food Chem Toxicol, 22, 415–8
  • Mankes R, Abraham R. (1975). Lysosomal dysfunction in colonic, submucosal macrophages of Rhesus monkeys caused by degraded iota carrageenan (38996). Proc Soc of Exp Biol Med, 150, 166–70
  • Mankes RF. (1977). Safety evaluation of Iridaea carrageenans in the rat including a study of the mechanisms of liver atrophy [thesis]. Unpublished. Albany Medical College
  • Marcus SN, Kline TJ, Pothoulakis H, et al. (1990). Role of inflammatory mediators in the pre-ulcerative phase of carrageenan-induced ulcerative disease of the colon. Gastroenterology, 98, A461
  • Marcus R, Watt J. (1971). Ulceration in young rats fed degraded carrageenan. Lancet, 2, 763--6
  • Marinalg. (2006). Carrageenan (INS 407) and Processed Euchema Seaweed (INS 407a): Monograph In Response to Request for Data for the 68th Meeting of JECFA, Brussels, Belgium, Nov. 2006. Unpublished report
  • McGill HC Jr, McMahan CA, Wigodsky HS, Sprinz H. (1977). Carrageenan in formula and infant baboon development. Gastroenterology, 73, 512–7
  • McKim JM. (2014). Food additive carrageenan: Part I: a critical review of carrageenan in vitro studies, potential pitfalls, and implications for human health and safety. Crit Rev Toxicol, in press
  • Melnick RL, Huff J, Haseman JK, et al. (1983). Chronic effects of agar, guar gum, gum arabic, locust-bean gum, or tara gum in F344 rats and B6C3F1 mice. Food Chem Toxicol, 21, 305–11
  • Michel C, MacFarlane GT. (1996). Digestive fates of soluble polysaccharides from marine macroalgae: involvement of the colonic microflora and physiological consequences for the host. J Appl Bacteriol, 80, 349–69
  • Millet AS, Verhaeghe E, Preclaire M, et al. (1997). Carrageenan K, a food gelling agent, promotes the growth of microadenomae in the colon in conventional rats but not in gnotoxenic rats with human flora. In: Fifth Toulouse symposium, Munich, 30 April–4 May, 67
  • Moirano A. (1977). Sulfated seaweed polysaccharides. In: Graham H, ed. Food colloids. Chapter 8. New York: AVI Publishing Company, 347--81
  • Mori H, Ohbayashi F, Hirono I, et al. (1984). Absence of genotoxicity of the carcinogenic sulfated polysaccharides carrageenan and dextran sulfate in mammalian DNA repair and bacterial mutagenicity assays. Nutr Cancer, 6, 92–7
  • Munro IC, Danielewska-Nikiel B. (2006). Comparison of estimated daily intakes of flavouring substances with no-observed-effect levels. Food Chem Toxicol, 44, 758–809
  • Nacife VP, Soeiro M, Gomes RN, et al. (2004). Morphological and biochemical characterization of macrophages activated by carrageenan and lipopolysaccharide in vivo. Cell Struct Funct, 29, 27–34
  • Nicklin S, Baker K, Miller K. (1988). Intestinal uptake of carrageenan: distribution and effects on humoral immune competence. Adv Exp Med Biol, 237, 813–20
  • Nicklin S, Miller K. (1984). Effect of orally administered food-grade carrageenans on antibody-mediated and cell-mediated immunity in the inbred rat. Food Chem Toxicol, 22, 615–21
  • Norris AA, Lewis AJ, Zeitlin IJ. (1981). Inability of degraded carrageenan fractions to induce inflammatory bowel ulceration in the guinea-pig. J Pharm Pharmacol, 33, 612--13
  • Onderdonk AB, Bartlett JB. (1979). Bacteriological studies of experimental ulcerative colitis. Am J Clin Nutr, 32, 258–65
  • Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2009a). Guideline 452: chronic toxicity studies, adopted 7 September 2009
  • Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2009b). Guideline 453: chronic toxicity\carcinogenicity studies, adopted 7 September 2009
  • Papanikolaou A, Wang QS, Papanikolaou D, et al. (2000). Sequential and morphological analysis of aberrant crypt foci formation in mice of differing susceptibility to azoxymethane-induced colon carcinogenesis. Carcinogenesis, 21, 1567–72
  • Pittman KA, Golberg L, Coulston F. (1976). Carrageenan: the effect of molecular weight and polymer type on its uptake, excretion and degradation in animals. Food Cosmet Toxicol, 14, 85–93
  • Poulsen E. (1973). Short-term peroral toxicity of undegraded carrageenan in pigs. Food Cosmet Toxicol, 11, 219–77
  • Reddy BS, Watanabe K, Sheinfil A. (1980). Effect of dietary wheat bran, alfalfa, pectin and carrageenan on plasma cholesterol and fecal bile acid and neutral sterol excretion in rats. J Nutr, 110, 1247–54
  • Riccardi BA, Fahrenbach MJ. (1965). Hypocholesterolemic activity of mucilaginous polysaccharides in white leghorn cockerels. Fed Prod, 24, 263
  • Roberts MA, Quemener B. (1999). Measurement of carrageenans in food: challenges, progress, and trends in analysis. Food Sci Technol, 70, 169–81
  • Roch-Arveiller M, Giroud JP. (1979). Effects biologiques et pharmaologiques da la carragenine. Path Biol, 27, 615–25
  • Rovasio RA, Monis B. (1980). Lethal and teratogenic effects of lambda carrageenan, a food additive, on the development of the chick embryo. Toxicol Pathol, 8, 14–9
  • Rovasio RA, Monis B. (1987). Carrageenan induces anomalies in the chick embryo. A light microscope study. Toxicol Pathol, 15, 444–50
  • Rowland IR, Mallett AK. (1986). Dietary fiber and the gut microflora – their effects on toxicity. Toxicol Environ Sci, 12, 125–38
  • Rowland IR, Mallett AK, Bearne CA, Farthing MJ. (1986). Enzyme activities of the hindgut microflora of laboratory animals and man. Xenobiotica, 16, 519–23
  • Rustia M, Shubik P, Patil K. (1980). Lifespan carcinogenicity test with native carrageenan in rats and hamsters. Cancer Lett, 11, 1–10
  • Salyers AA, West SEH, Vercellotti J, Wilkins TD. (1977). Fermentation of mucins and plant polysaccharides by anaerobic bacteria from the human colon. Appl Environ Microbiol, 34, 529–33
  • Scientific Committee for Food on Emulsifiers, Stabilizers, Thickeners and Gelling Agents, 30 November 1978
  • Shah ZC, Huffman FG. (2003). Current availability and consumption of carrageenan-containing foods. Ecol Food Nutr, 42, 357–71
  • Sherry B, Flewelling A, Smith AL. (1993). Carrageenan: an asset or detriment in infant formula? Am J Clin Nutr, 58, 715
  • Sherry B, Flewelling A, Smith AL. (1999). Carrageenan: an asset or detriment in infant formula? Am J Clin Nutr, 58, 715, 1993. Erratum: Am J Clin Nutr, 69, 1293
  • Sylianco CYL, Balboa J, Serrame E, Guantes E. (1993). Non-genotoxic and antigenotoxic activity of PNG carrageenan. Phillip J Sci, 122, 139–53
  • Taché S, Peiffer G, Millet AS, Corpet DE. (2000). Carrageenan gel and aberrant crypt foci in the colon of conventional and human flora-associated rats. Nutr Cancer, 37, 193–7
  • Tarlo SM, Dolovich J, Listgarent C. (1995). Anaphylaxis to carrageenan: a pseudo-latex allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol, 95, 933–6
  • Thomas WR. (1999). In: Imeson A, Thickening and gelling agents for food. Chapter 3. 2nd ed. Aspen Publishers, 45--59
  • Thompson AW. (1978). Carrageenan and the immune response. Biomedicine, 28, 148–52
  • Thompson AW, Fowler EF. (1981). Carrageenan: a review of its effects on the immune system. Agents Act, 11, 265–73
  • Thompson AW, Fowler EF, Pugh-Humphreys RGP. (1979). Immunopharmacology of the macrophage-toxic agent carrageenan. Int J Immunopharm, 1, 247–61
  • Tobacman JK. (2001). Review of harmful gastrointestinal effects of carrageenan in animal experiments. Environ Health Perspect, 109, 983–94
  • Tobacman JK. (2002). Carrageenan in foods: response. Environ Health Perspect, 110, A176–7
  • Tobacman JK. (2003). Toxic considerations related to ingestion of carrageenan. Rev Food Nutr Toxicity, 1, 204–29
  • Tomarelli RM, Tucker WD Jr, Baumann LM, et al. (1974). Nutritional quality of processed milk containing carrageenan. J Agri Fd Chem, 22, 819–24
  • Tsuji RF, Hosino K, Noro Y, et al. (2003). Suppression of allergic reaction by λ-carrageenan: toll-like receptor 4/MyD88-dependent and -independent modulation of immunity. Clin Exp Allergy, 33, 249–58
  • Tungland BC, Meyer D. (2002). Nondigestible oligo- and polysaccahrides (dietary fiber): their physiology and role in health and food. Comprehen Rev Food Sci Food Saf, 3, 73–92
  • Tye RJ. (1991). Carrageenan as a product ingredient. DCI 28–33
  • United Stated Adopted Names Council (USAN). (1988). List No. 297 New Names, Poligeenan. Clin Pharmacol Therapeut, 44, 246–8
  • Uno Y, Omoto T, Goto Y, et al. (2001a). Molecular weight and fecal excreted quantity of carrageenan administered to rats in blended feed. Jpn J Food Chem (JJFC), 8, 83–93
  • Uno Y, Omoto T, Goto Y, et al. (2001b). Molecular weight distribution of Carrageenans studied by a combined gel permeation/inductively coupled plasma (GPC/ICP) method. Food Add Contamin, 18, 763–72
  • Van der Waaij, D, Cohen, BJ, Anver, MR. (1974). Mitigation of experimental inflammatory bowel disease in guinea-pigs by selective elimination of the aerobic gram-negative intestinal microflora. Gastroenterology 67, 460--72
  • Vorhees CV, Butcher RE, Brunner RL, Sobotka JJ. (1979). A developmental test battery for neurobehavioral toxicity in rats: a preliminary analysis using monosodium glutamate, calcium carrageenan and hydroxyurea. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 50, 267–82
  • Watanabe K, Reddy BS, Wong CQ, Weisburger JH. (1978). Effect of dietary undegraded carrageenan on colon carcinogenesis in F344 rats treated with azoxymethane or methylnitrosourea. Cancer Res, 38, 4427–30
  • Watt J, Marcus R. (1969). Ulcerative colitis in the guinea pig caused by seaweed extract. J Pharm Pharmacol, 21, 187s--8s
  • Watt J, Marcus R. (1971). Carrageenan-induced ulceration of the large intestine in the guinea pig. Gut, 12, 164--71
  • Watt J, Marcus AJ. (1978). Comparison of the effects of carrageenins and Danish agar on the colon of guinea-pigs. Proc Nutr Soc, 37, 39A
  • Weiner ML. (1988). Intestinal transport of some macromolecules in food. Food Chem Toxicol, 26, 867–80
  • Weiner ML. (1991). Toxicological properties of carrageenan. Agents Act, 32, 46–51
  • Weiner ML, Freeman C, McCarty JD, Fletcher MJ. (1989). Acute toxicity of carrageenan. Fifth International Congress of Toxicology, 52, 16–21 July
  • Weiner ML. (2007). Response to JECFA on the Exposure of Adults and Infants to Carrageenan in food and infant formula. Unpublished paper, JECFA, 2007.
  • Weiner, ML, Nuber D, Blakemore WR, et al. (2007). A 90-day dietary study of kappa carrageenan with emphasis on the gastrointestinal tract. Food Chem Toxicol, 45, 98–106
  • Willett WC, Hunter DJ, Stampfer MJ, et al. (1992). Dietary fat and fiber in relation to risk of breast cancer. J Am Med Assoc, 268, 2037–44

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.