Diacetyl and 2,3-pentanedione exposures associated with cigarette smoking: implications for risk assessment of food and flavoring workers

References

• Aghlara A, Mustafa S, Manap Y, Mohamad R. (2009). Characterization of headspace volatile flavor compounds formed during kefir production: application of solid phase microextraction. Int J Food Prop, 12, 808–18.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akpinar-Elci M, Stemple KJ, Elci OC, Dweik RA, Kreiss K, Enright PL. (2006). Exhaled nitric oxide measurement in workers in a microwave popcorn production plant. Int J Occup Env Health, 12, 106–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akpinar-Elci M, Stemple KJ, Enright PL, Fahy JV, Bledsoe TA, Kreiss K, Weissman DN. (2005). Induced sputum evaluation in microwave popcorn production workers. Chest, 128, 991–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akpinar-Elci M, Travis WD, Lynch DA, Kreiss K. (2004). Bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome in popcorn production plant workers. Eur Respir J, 24, 298–302.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson SE, Wells J, Fedorowicz A, Butterworth LF, Meade B, Munson AE. (2007). Evaluation of the contact and respiratory sensitization potential of volatile organic compounds generated by simulated indoor air chemistry. Toxicol Sci, 97, 355.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arts JHE, Jacobs EJ, Kuper CF. (2010). Pre-exposure to sulfur dioxide attenuates most allergic reactions upon trimellitic anhydride challenge in sensitized Brown Norway rats. Inhal Toxicol, 22, 179–91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker RR, Massey ED, Smith G. (2004). An overview of the effects of tobacco ingredients on smoke chemistry and toxicity. Food Chem Toxicol, 42S, S53–S83.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartowsky E, Henschke P. (2004). The ‘buttery’ attribute of wine–diacetyl–desirability, spoilage and beyond. Int J Food Microbiol, 96, 235–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Battista SP. (1975). Cilia toxic components of cigarette smoke. In Smoking and Health Volume I - Modifying the Risk for the Smoker: National Cancer Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Bolton SJ, Pinnion K, Oreffo V, Foster M, Pinkerton KE. (2009). Characterisation of the proximal airway squamous metaplasia induced by chronic tobacco smoke exposure in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Respir Res, 10, 1–15.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Borgerding M, Bodnar J, Wingate D. (2000). The 1999 Massachusetts Benchmark Study - the Final Report. Conducted for the Massachusetts Department of Public Health by the Tobacco Industry. Boston, MA: Massachusetts Department of Public Health 2000. Available at http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu/documentStore/y/e/k/yek21c00/Syek21c00.pdf. Accessed on October 29, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Bouchar R. (1971). Letter to D.R. Davies, British-American Tobacco Co., Ltd., Venezuela, November 30, 1971.
   Google Scholar
• Burdock G. (2005). Flavor ingredients. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
   Google Scholar
• Carmines E, Lemus R, Gaworski C. (2005). Toxicologic evaluation of licorice extract as a cigarette ingredient. Food Chem Toxicol, 43, 1303–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cavalcanti Z, Filho A, Pereira C, Coletta E. (2012). Bronchiolitis associated with exposure to artificial butter flavoring in workers at a cookie factory in Brazil. J Bras Pneumol, 38, 395–9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• CDC. (2007). Fixed obstructive lung disease in workers in the flavor-manufacturing industry - California, 2004–2007. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 56, 389–93.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• CDC. (2011). State smoke-free laws for worksites, restaurants, and bars -- United States, 2000–2010. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 60, 472–5.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Churg A, Muller NL, Wright JL. (2010). Respiratory bronchiolitis/interstitial lung disease. Arch Pathol Lab Med, 134, 27–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coleman W. (2000). Tobacco volatiles: gas chromatography. In: Wilson I. D., Adlard E. R., Cooke M., and Poole C. F., Eds. Encyclopedia of Separation Science, Volume 9. London: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Connolly G, Wayne G, Lymperis D, Doherty M. (2000). How cigarette additives are used to mask environmental tobacco smoke. Tobacco Control, 9, 283–91.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• CORESTA. (2012). 2011 Collaborative Study of CORESTA Monitors #6 (CM6) and #7 (CM7) for the Determination of Test Piece Weight, TPM, Water, Nicotine, NFDPM, Carbon Monoxide and Puff Count Obtained Under Mainstream ‘ISO’ and ‘Intense’ Smoking Regimes, February 2012. Cooperation Centre for Scientific Research Relative to Tobacco (CORESTA).
   Google Scholar
• CORESTA. (2013). CORESTA Recommended Method No. 74 - Determination of Selected Carbonyls in Mainstream Cigarette Smoke by HPLC, March 2013. Cooperation Centre for Scientific Research Relative to Tobacco (CORESTA).
   Google Scholar
• Cotte V, Prasad S, Wan P, Linforth R, Taylor A. (2010). Cigarette smoke: GC-olfactometry analyses using two computer programs. In: Blank I., Wust M. and Yeretzian C., Eds. Expression of Multidisciplinary Flavour Science. London: British American Tobacco.
   Google Scholar
• Counts M, Morton M, Laffoon S, Cox R, Lipowicz P. (2005). Smoke composition and predicting relationships for international commercial cigarettes smoked with three machine-smoking conditions. Reg Toxicol Pharmicol, 41, 185–227.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cox-Ganser J, Ganser G, Saito R, Hobbs G, Boylstein R, Hendricks W, et al. (2011). Correcting diacetyl concentrations from air samples collected with NIOSH method 2557. J Occup Environ Hyg, 8, 59–70.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davies D. (1971). Letter to R.S. Boucher, C.A. Cigarrera Biggott, Sucs., Venezuela, November 24, 1971.
   Google Scholar
• Day G, LeBouf R, Grote A, Pendergrass S, Cummings K, Kreiss K, Kullman G. (2011). Identification and measurement of diacetyl substitutes in dry bakery mix production. J Occup Environ Hyg, 8, 93–103.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Department of Health London. (2003). Permitted additives to tobacco products in the United Kingdom. London, UK: Department of Health.
   Google Scholar
• Djordjevic M, Stellman S, Zang E. (2000). Doses of nicotine and lung carcinogens delivered to cigarette smokers. J Natl Cancer Inst, 92, 106–11.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dworak JJ, Roberts DW, Calter MA, Fields CA, Borak J. (2013). Is diacetyl a respiratory sensitizer? A reconsideration using QSAR, QMM and competition experiments. Chem Res Toxicol, 26, 631–3.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Elssner A, Vogelmeier C. (2001). The role of neutrophils in the pathogenesis of obliterative bronchiolitis after lung transplantation. Transpl Infect Dis, 3, 168–176.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ely CJ. (1994). Letter to Michael E. Eriksen, Sc.D., Department of Health and Human Services. Atlanta, GA, September 21, 1994.
   Google Scholar
• Epler GR, Colby TV. (1983). The spectrum of bronchiolitis obliterans. Chest, 83, 161–2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FDA. (1983). Title 21 - Food and Drugs, Chapter 1 - Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Department of Health and Human Services (Continued), Subchapter B - Food for Human Consumption (Continued), Part 184 - Direct Food Substances Affirmed as Generally Recognized as Safe, Subpart B - Listing of Specific Substances Affirmed as GRAS, Section 184.1278 - Diacetyl. 21. CFR. 184.1278. November 15, 1983.
   Google Scholar
• Fedan JS, Dowdy JA, Fedan KB, Hubbs AF. (2006). Popcorn worker's lung: In vitro exposure to diacetyl, an ingredient in microwave popcorn butter flavoring, increases reactivity to methacholine. Toxicol Appl Pharm, 215, 17–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fowles J, Bates M, Noiton D. (2000). The Chemical Constituents in Cigarettes and Cigarette Smoke: Priorities for Harm Reduction. Porirua, New Zealand: New Zealand Ministry of Health, Epidemiology and Toxicology Group.
   Google Scholar
• Fowles J, Dybing E. (2003). Application of toxicological risk assessment principles to the chemical constituents of cigarette smoke. Tobacco Control, 12, 424–30.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fujioka K, Shibamoto T. (2006). Determination of toxic carbonyl compounds in cigarette smoke. Environ Toxicol, 21, 47–54.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galbraith D, Weill D. (2009). Popcorn lung and bronchiolitis obliterans: a critical appraisal. Int Arch Occup Environ Health, 82, 407–16.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gallardo-Escamilla F, Kelly A, Delahunty C. (2005). Influence of starter culture on flavor and headspace volatile profiles of fermented whey and whey produced from fermented milk. J Dairy Sci, 88, 3745–53.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Health Canada. (1999). Determination of ‘Tar’, Nicotine and Carbon Monoxide in Mainstream Smoke.: Health Canada T-115.
   Google Scholar
• Hoffman D, Hoffman I. (1998). Tobacco smoke components. Beitrage zur Tabakforschung International, 18, 49–52.
   Google Scholar
• Hubbs AF, Battelli LA, Goldsmith WT, Porter DW, Frazer D, Friend S, et al. (2002). Necrosis of nasal and airway epithelium in rats inhaling vapors of artificial butter flavoring. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 185, 128–35.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hubbs AF, Goldsmith WT, Kashon ML, Frazer D, Mercer RR, Battelli LA, et al. (2008). Respiratory toxicologic pathology of inhaled diacetyl in sprague-dawley rats. Toxicol Pathol, 36, 330–44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IARC. (1999). Acetaldehyde. In IARC Monographs Volume 71: International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC).
   Google Scholar
• IARC. (2013). List of Classifications by Cancer Sites with Sufficient or Limited Evidence in Humans, Volumes 1 to 109. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Available at http://www.monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/index.php. Accessed on November 6, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• ISO. (1998). Cigarettes and Filter Rods – Determination of Nominal Diameter - Method Using a Non-Contact Optical Measuring Apparatus. Standard 2971, 3rd ed.: International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
   Google Scholar
• ISO. (1999a). Tobacco and Tobacco Products – Atmosphere for Conditioning and Testing. Standard 3402, 4th ed.: International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
   Google Scholar
• ISO. (1999b). Cigarettes – Determination of Water in Smoke Condensates - Part 1: Gas-chromatographic Method. Standard 10362-1, 2nd ed.: International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
   Google Scholar
• ISO. (2000a). Routine analytical cigarette-smoking machine – Definitions and standard conditions. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO). ISO 3308:2000(E).
   Google Scholar
• ISO. (2000b). Cigarettes – Determination of Total and Nicotine-Free Dry Particulate Matter Using a Routine Analytical Smoking Machine. Standard 4387, 3rd ed.: International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
   Google Scholar
• ISO. (2000c). Cigarettes – Determination of Nicotine in Smoke Condensates – Gas-chromatographic Method. Standard 10315, 2nd ed.: International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
   Google Scholar
• ISO. (2002a). Cigarettes – Determination of Ventilation – Definitions and Measurement Principles. Standard 9512, 2nd ed.: International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
   Google Scholar
• ISO. (2002b). Tobacco and Tobacco Products – Draw Resistance of Cigarettes and Pressure Drop of Filter Rods – Standard Conditions and Measurement. Standard 6565, 3rd ed.: International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
   Google Scholar
• ISO. (2007). Cigarettes – Determination of Carbon Monoxide in the Vapour Phase of Cigarette Smoke – NDIR Method. Standard 8454, 3rd ed.: International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
   Google Scholar
• Kanwal R, Kullman G, Piacitelli C, Sahakian N, Martin S, Fedan K, Kreiss K. (2006). Evaluation of flavorings-related lung disease risk at six microwave popcorn plants. J Environ Med, 48, 149–57.
   Google Scholar
• Kari FW. (1993). NTP Technical Report on Toxicity Studies of Glutaraldehyde. Research Triangle Park, NC: National Toxicology Program (NTP), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
   Google Scholar
• Kennedy VE, Todd JL, Palmer SM. (2013). Bronchoalveolar lavage as a tool to predict, diagnose and understand bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome. Am J Transplant, 13, 552–61.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim TJ, Materna BL, Prudhomme JC, Fedan KB, Enright PL, Sahakian NM, et al. (2010). Industry-wide medical surveillance of California flavor manufacturing workers: Cross-sectional results. Am J Ind Med, 53, 857–65.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King J, T. (1989). Bronchiolitis obliterans. Lung, 167, 69–93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kreiss K, Gomaa A, Kullman G, Fedan K, Simoes E, Enright P. (2002). Clinical bronchiolitis obliterans in workers at a microwave-popcorn plant. N Engl J Med, 347, 330–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kullman G, Boylstein R, Jones WG, Piacitelli C, Pendergrass S, Kreiss K. (2005). Characterization of respiratory exposures at a microwave popcorn plant with cases of bronchiolitis obliterans. J Occup Environ Hyg, 2, 169–78.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leffingwell J, Alford E. (2005). Volatile constituents of perique tobacco. J Environ Agric Food Chem, 4, 1–16.
   Google Scholar
• Leffingwell J, Young H, Bernasek E. (1972). Tobacco Flavoring for Smoking Products. Winston-Salem, NC: R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company.
   Google Scholar
• Lioy PJ. (1990). Assessing total human exposure to contaminants. Environ Sci Technol, 24, 938–45.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lockey J, Hilbert T, Levin L, Ryan P, White K, Borton E, et al. (2009). Airway obstruction related to diacetyl exposure at microwave popcorn production facilities. Eur Respir J, 34, 63–71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maier A, Kohrman-Vincent M, Parker A, Haber L. (2010). Evaluation of concentration-response options for diacetyl in support of occupational risk assessment. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol, 58, 285–96.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malson J, Sims K, Murty R, Pickworth W. (2001). Comparison of the nicotine content of tobacco used in bidis and conventional cigarettes. Tobacco Control, 10, 181–3.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Martyny JW, Van Dyke MV, Arbuckle S, Towle M, Rose CS. (2008). Diacetyl exposures in the flavor manufacturing industry. J Occup Environ Hyg, 5, 679–88.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MDPH. (1998). Testing and Reporting of Constituents of Cigarette Smoke (Proposed Regulations): 105 Code of Massachusetts Regulations 665.000, August 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Modi P, Yadava V, Sreedhar R, Khasawaneh F, Balk RA. (2008). A case of flavor-induced lung disease. South Med J, 101, 541–2.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Moree-Testa P, Saint-Jalm Y. (1981). Determination of [alpha]-dicarbonyl compounds in cigarette smoke. J Chromatogr, 217, 197–208.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan DL, Flake GP, Kirby PJ, Palmer SM. (2008). Respiratory toxicity of diacetyl in C57BI/6 mice. Toxicol Sci, 103, 169–80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan DL, Jokinen MP, Price HC, Gwinn WM, Palmer SM, Flake GP. (2012). Bronchial and bronchiolar fibrosis in rats exposed to 2,3-pentanedione vapors: Implications for bronchiolitis obliterans in humans. Toxicol Pathol, 40, 448–65.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan DL, Price HC, O’Connor RW, Seely JC, Ward SM, Wilson RE, Cunningham ML. (2000). Upper respiratory tract toxicity of inhaled methylvinyl ketone in F344 rats and B6C3F1 mice. Toxicol Sci, 58, 182–94.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan DL, Ward SM, Wilson RE, Price HC, O’Connor RW, Seely JC, Cunningham ML. (2001). Inhalation toxicity studies of the α,β-unsaturated ketones: Ethyl vinyl ketone. Inhal Toxicol, 13, 633–58.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Morris JB, Hubbs AF. (2009). Inhalation dosimetry of diacetyl and butyric acid, two components of butter flavoring vapors. Toxicol Sci, 108, 173–83.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NCI. (2013). NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms. National Cancer Institute (NCI), National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Available at http://www.cancer.gov/dictionary?cdrid = 306510. Accessed on October 21, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• NIOSH. (1986). International Bakers Services, Inc. NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation Report. South Bend, IN: Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). HETA Report No. 85-171-1710.
   Google Scholar
• NIOSH. (2003a). AgriLink Foods Popcorn Plant. NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation Report. Cincinnnati, OH: Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). HETA Report No. 2002-0408-2915.
   Google Scholar
• NIOSH. (2003b). B.K. Heuermann Popcorn, Inc. NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation Report. Morgantown, WV: Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). HETA Report No. 2001-0517.
   Google Scholar
• NIOSH. (2003c). Nebraska Popcorn. NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation Report. Morgantown, WV: Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). HETA Report No. 2002-0089.
   Google Scholar
• NIOSH. (2003d). Diacetyl: Method 2557. NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods (NMAM) 4th ed., 3rd suppl. Cincinnati, Ohio: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Available at http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2003-154/pdfs/2557.pdf. Accessed on October 29, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• NIOSH. (2004a). ConAgra Snack Foods. NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation Report. Cincinnnati, OH: Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). HETA Report No. 2003-0112-2949.
   Google Scholar
• NIOSH. (2004b). American Pop Corn Company. NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation Report. Cincinnati, OH: Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). HETA Report No. 2001-0474-2943.
   Google Scholar
• NIOSH. (2006). Glister-Mary Lee Corporation. NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation Report: Jasper, MO. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). HETA Report No. 2000-0401-2991.
   Google Scholar
• NIOSH. (2007a). Carmi Flavor and Fragrance Company, Inc. NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation Report: Commerce, California. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). HETA Report No. 2006-0303-3043.
   Google Scholar
• NIOSH. (2007b). Yatsko's Popcorn, San Coulee, Montana. NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation Report: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). HETA Report No. 2006-0195-3044.
   Google Scholar
• NIOSH. (2008a). Report of Fixed Obstructive Lung Disease in Workers at a Flavoring Manufacturing Plant – Gold Coast Ingredients, Inc. Commerce, Ca. NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation Report: Occupational Safety and Health Administration. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). HETA Report No. 2007-0033-3074.
   Google Scholar
• NIOSH. (2008b). Evaluating Occupational Exposures and Work Practices at Agilex Flavors, Inc. formerly Key Essentials, Inc., Rancho Santa Margarita, CA. NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation Report: U.S .Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). HETA Report No. 2006-0361-2.
   Google Scholar
• NIOSH. (2009a). Report on an Investigation of Buttermilk Flavoring Exposures and Respiratory Health at a Bakery Mix Production Facility, General Mills, Los Angeles, CA. NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation Report: U.S .Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). HETA Report No. 2008-0230-3096.
   Google Scholar
• NIOSH. (2009b). Respiratory symptoms in workers at three commercial kitchens, Aramark, New York, New York. NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation Report: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). HETA Report No. 2008-0125-0126-0127-3093.
   Google Scholar
• NIOSH. (2009c). Findings from Industrial Hygiene Air Sampling, Ventilation Assessment, and a Medical Survey at a Facility that Manufactures Flavorings, Modified Dairy Products, and Bacterial Additives. Chr. Hansen, Inc., New Berlin, WI. NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation Report: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). HETA Report No. 2007-0327-3083.
   Google Scholar
• NIOSH. (2011a). Occupational exposure to diacetyl and 2,3-pentanedione. Draft criteria for a recommended standard: Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
   Google Scholar
• NIOSH. (2011b). Lung Function (Spirometry) Testing in Employees at a Flavorings Manufacturing Plant - Indiana. NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation Report. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). HETA Report No. 2008-0155-3131.
   Google Scholar
• NRC. (1991). Human Exposure Assessment for Airborne Pollutants: Advances and Opportunities. Washington, D.C.: National Research Council (NRC), National Academy of Sciences.
   Google Scholar
• NTP. (2005). Executive summary butanedione: exposure info. National Toxicology Program (NTP), National Institute of Environemental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Available at http://www.ntp.niehs.nih.gov/go/8759. Accessed on September 21, 2011.
   Google Scholar
• Opdyke D. (1979). Monographs on fragrance raw materials. Food Cosmet Toxicol, 17, 357–90.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• OSHA. (2006). Diacetyl: Method PV2118. OSHA Sampling and Analytical Methods. U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Available at https://www.osha.gov/dts/sltc/methods/partial/t-pv2118/t-pv2118.html. Accessed on October 29, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• OSHA. (2008a). Acetoin/Diacetyl: Method 1012. OSHA Sampling and Analytical Methods. U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Available at http://www.osha.gov/dts/sltc/methods/validated/1012/1012.html. Accessed on October 29, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• OSHA. (2008b). Acetoin/Diacetyl: Method 1013. OSHA Sampling and Analytical Methods. U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Available at http://www.osha.gov/dts/sltc/methods/validated/1013/1013.html. Accessed on October 29, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• OSHA. (2013). Semiannual Agenda of Regulations. Federal Register Vol. 78, No. 141, p. 44282–44287. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, Office of the Secretary. Occupational Safety and Health Administration.
   Google Scholar
• Park KS, Wells JM, Zorn AM, Wert SE, Laubach VE, Fernandez LG, Whitsett JA. (2006). Transdifferentiation of ciliated cells during repair of the respiratory epithelium. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol, 34, 151–7.
   Google Scholar
• Parmet A. (2002). Letter to the editor regarding Kreiss et al. (2002). Bronchioloitis in popcorn-factory workers. N Engl J Med, 347, 1980–1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters EJ, Morice R, Benner SE, Lippman S, Lukeman J, Lee JS, et al. (1993). Squamous metaplasia of the bronchial mucosa and its relationship to smoking. Chest, 103, 1429–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Potera C. (2012). Still searching for better butter flavoring. Envron Health Persp, 120, A457.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• R.J. Reynolds. (2010). R.J. Reynolds List of Ingredients. Available at http://www.rjrt.com/TobaccoIngredients.aspx. Accessed on August 8, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Rodgman A, Perfetti TA. (2013). The Chemical Components of Tobacco and Tobacco Smoke. Second ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
   Google Scholar
• Roemer E, Stabbert R, Rustemeier K, Veltel D, Meisgen T, Reininghaus W, et al. (2004). Chemical composition, cytotoxicity and mutagenicity of smoke from US commercial and reference cigarettes smoked under two sets of machines. Toxicology, 195, 31–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schachter E. (2002). The Editorialist reply: Regarding Kreiss et al. (2002). Bronchiolitis in popcorn-factory workers. N Engl J Med, 347, 1982.
   Google Scholar
• Shiotsuka RN, Stuart BP, Charles JM, Simon GS, Malichky P, Mostowy JM. (2010). Chronic inhalation exposures of Fischer 344 rats to 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate did not reveal a carcinogenic potential. Inhal Toxicol, 22, 875–87.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swauger J, Steichen T, Murphy P, Kinsler S. (2002). An analysis of the mainstream smoke chemistry of samples of the U.S. cigarette market acquired between 1995 and 2000. Reg Toxicol Pharmicol, 35, 142–56.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Talhout R, Opperhuizen A, Van Amsterdam J. (2006). Sugars as tobacco ingredient: effects on mainstream smoke composition. Food Chem Toxicol, 44, 1789–98.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson M. (1992). NTP Technical Report on Toxicity Studies of Formic Acid. Research Triangle Park, NC: National Toxicology Program (NTP), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. DHHS. (2001). Risks Associated with Smoking Cigarettes with Low-Machine Measured Yields of Tar and Nicotine. US Department of Health and Human Services (U.S. DHHS).
   Google Scholar
• U.S. EPA. (1992). Guidelines for Exposure Assessment. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), Risk Assessment Forum.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. FDA. (2012). Harmful and Potentially Harmful Constituents in Tobacco Products and Tobacco Smoke; Established List. 77 Federal Register 20034: Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration (U.S. FDA).
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Surgeon General. (1988). The health consequences of smoking - nicotine addiction. Rockville, Maryland: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Surgeon General. (2004). The Health Consequences of Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Surgeon General. (2010). How Tobacco Smoke Causes Disease: The Biology and Behavioral Basis for Smoking-Attributable Disease. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Surgeon General.
   Google Scholar
• van der Toorn M, Slebos D, de Bruin HG, Gras R, Rezayat D, Jorge L, et al. (2013). Critical role of aldehydes in cigarette smoke-induced acute airway inflammation. Respir Res, 14, 1–12.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• van Rooy FG, Rooyackers JM, Prokop M, Houba R, Smit LAM, Heederik DJJ. (2007). Bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome in chemical workers producing diacetyl for food flavorings. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 176, 498–504.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Rooy FG, Smit LAM, Houba R, Zaat VAC, Rooyackers JM, Heederik DJJ. (2009). A cross-sectional study of lung function and respiratory symptoms among chemical workers producing diacetyl for food flavourings. Occup Environ Med, 66, 105–110.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker TR, Kiefer JE. (1966). Ciliastatic components in the gas phase of cigarette smoke. Science, 153, 1248–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White KL, Heikkila K, Williams R, Levin LP, Lockey JE, Rice CH. (2010). Diacetyl exposures at four microwave plants. J Occup Environ Hyg, 7, 185–93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whittaker P, Clarke J, San R, Begley T, Dunkel V. (2008). Evaluation of the butter flavoring chemical diacetyl and a fluorochemical paper additive for mutagenicity and toxicity using the mammalian cell gene mutation assay in L5178Y mouse lymphoma cells. Food Chem Toxicol, 46, 2928–33.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO. (2008). The scientific basis of tobacco product regulation. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization (WHO).
   Google Scholar
• Wood T, Wewers M, Groner J, Ahijevych K. (2004). Smoke constituent exposure and smoking topography of adolescent daily cigarette smokers. Nicotine Tob Res, 6, 853–62.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yang B, Yang Z, Pan X, Xiao F, Liu X, Zhu M, Xie J. (2013). Crotonaldehyde-exposed macrophages induce IL-8 release from airway epithelial cells through NF-kB and AP-1 pathways. Toxicol Lett, 219, 26–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yee KK, Pribitkin EA, Cowart BJ, Vainius AA, Klock CT, Rosen D, et al. (2009). Smoking-associated squamous metaplasia in olfactory mucosa of patients with chronic rhinosinusitis. Toxicol Pathol, 37, 594–8.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zaccone EJ, Thompson JA, Shimko MJ, Fedan JS. (2013). Effects of popcorn butter flavorings, diacetyl and 2,3-pentanedione, on isolated airway preparations. FASEB J, 27, 1107.16.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zheng L, Walters EH, Ward C. (2000). Airway neutrophilia in stable and bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome patients following lung transplantation. Thorax, 55, 53–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar