Review of cobalt toxicokinetics following oral dosing: Implications for health risk assessments and metal-on-metal hip implant patients

References

• ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists). (2001). Cobalt and Inorganic Compounds: TLV. Cincinnati, OH: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
   Google Scholar
• Alexander CS. (1969). Cobalt and the heart. Ann Intern Med, 70, 411–3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexander CS. (1972). Cobalt-beer cardiomyopathy: a clinical and pathologic study of twenty-eight cases. Am J Med, 53, 395–417.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alimonti A, Bocca B, Mannella E, Petrucci F, Zennaro F, Cotichini R, et al. (2005). Assessment of reference values for selected elements in a healthy urban population. Ann Ist Super Sanita, 41, 181–7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Allen LA, Ambardekar AV, Devaraj KM, Maleszewski JJ, Wolfel EE (2014). Clinical problem-solving. Missing elements of the history. N Engl J Med, 370, 559–66.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amstutz HC, Grigoris P. (1996). Metal on metal bearings in hip arthroplasty. Clin Orthop, 329 Suppl, S11–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Apel W, Stark D, O’Hagan S. (2013a). An update on cobalt–chromium toxic retinopathy. Doc Ophthalmol, 127, 173–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Apel W, Stark D, Stark A, O’Hagan S, Ling J. (2013b). Cobalt-chromium toxic retinopathy case study. Doc Ophthalmol, 126, 69–78.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry). (2012). Toxicological Profile for Chromium. September 2012. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry.
   Google Scholar
• Baker JF, Vioreanu MH, Khan HA. (2011). Smith-Petersen Vitallium mould arthroplasty: A 62-year follow-up. J Bone Joint Surg Br, 93, 1285–6.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bar-Or D, Lau E, Winkler JV. (2000). A novel assay for cobalt-albumin binding and its potential as a marker for myocardial ischemia-a preliminary report. J Emerg Med, 19, 311–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bar-Or D, Rael LT, Bar-Or R, Slone DS, Mains CW, Rao NK. (2008). The cobalt-albumin binding assay: Insights into its mode of action. Clin Chim Acta, 387, 120–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barborik M, Dusek J. (1972). Cardiomyopathy accompanying industrial cobalt exposure. Br Heart J, 34, 113–6.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barceloux D. (1999). Cobalt. Clin Toxicol, 37, 201–6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berk L, Burchenal JH, Castle WB. (1949). Erythropoietic effect of cobalt in patients with or without anemia. N Engl J Med, 240, 754–61.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berlin NI, Huff RL, Hennessy TG. (1951). Iron metabolism in the cobalt-polycythemic rat. J Biol Chem, 188, 445–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonenfant JL, Auger C, Miller G, Chenard J, Roy PE. (1969). Quebec beer-drinkers’ myocardosis: pathological aspects. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 156, 577–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowie EA, Hurley PJ. (1975). Cobalt chloride in the treatment of refractory anaemia in patients undergoing long-term haemodialysis. Aust N Z J Med, 5, 306–14.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bradberry SM, Wilkinson JM, Ferner RE. (2014). Systemic toxicity related to metal hip prostheses. Clin Toxicol, 52, 837–47.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CAL EPA (California Environmental Protection Agency). (2013). Proposition 65. Chemicals Known to the State to Cause Cancer or Reproductive Toxicity. January 4, 2013. Sacramento, CA: State of California, Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment.
   Google Scholar
• Case C, Langkamer V, James C, Palmer MR, Kemp AJ, Heap PF. (1994). Widespread dissemination of metal debris from implants. J Bone Joint Surg Br, 76, 701–12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Case CP, Langkamer VG, Howell RT, Webb J, Standen G, Palmer M. (1996). Preliminary observations on possible premalignant changes in bone marrow adjacent to worn total hip arthroplasty implants. Clin Orthop, 329, S269–79.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Catalani S, Leone R, Rizzetti MC, Padovani A, Apostoli P. (2011). The role of albumin in human toxicology of cobalt: Contribution from a clinical case. ISRN Hematol, 2011, 1–6.
   Google Scholar
• Catalani S, Rizzetti MC, Padovani A, Apostoli P. (2012). Neurotoxicity of cobalt. Hum Exp Toxicol, 31, 421–37.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christensen JM, Poulsen OM, Thomsen M. (1993). A short-term cross-over study on oral administration of soluble and insoluble cobalt compounds: Sex differences in biological levels. Int Arch Occup Environ Health, 65, 233–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christian WV, Oliver LD, Paustenbach DJ, Kreider ML, Finley BL. (2014). Toxicology-based cancer causation analysis of CoCr-containing hip implants: a quantitative assessment of genotoxicity and tumorigenicity studies. J Appl Toxicol, 34, 939–67.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cobb A, Schmalzreid T. (2006). The clinical significance of metal ion release from cobalt-chromium metal-on-metal hip joint arthroplasty. Proc Inst Mech Eng H, 220, 385–98.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curtis JR, Goode GC, Herrington J, Urdaneta LE. (1976). Possible cobalt toxicity in maintenance hemodialysis patients after treatment with cobaltous chloride: a study of blood and tissue cobalt concentrations in normal subjects and patients with terminal and renal failure. Clin Nephrol, 5, 61–5.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dabeka RW, McKenzie AD. (1995). Survey of lead, cadmium, fluoride, nickel, and cobalt in food composites and estimation of dietary intakes of these elements by Canadians in 1986–1988. J AOAC Intl, 78, 897–909.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dahms K, Sharkova Y, Heitland P, Pankuweit S, Schaefer JR. (2014). Cobalt intoxication diagnosed with the help of Dr House. Lancet, 383, 574.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daniel J, Ziaee H, Pradhan C, Pynsent PB, McMinn DJ. (2010). Renal clearance of cobalt in relation to the use of metal-on-metal bearings in hip arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg Am, 92, 840–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis JE, Fields JP. (1958). Experimental production of polycythemia in humans by administration of cobalt chloride. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med, 99, 493–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Degirmenci Y, Kececi H. (2011). Electrophysiological changes in iron deficiency anemia. Neurol Croat, 61, 3–10.
   Google Scholar
• DeWoskin RS, Thompson CM. (2008). Renal clearance parameters for PBPK model analysis of early lifestage differences in the disposition of environmental toxicants. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol, 51, 66–86.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duckham JM, Lee HA. (1976). The treatment of refractory anaemia of chronic renal failure with cobalt chloride. Quart J Med, 45, 277–94.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Durrani SK, Noble PC, Sampson B, Panetta T, Liddle AD, Sabah SA, et al. (2014). Changes in blood ion levels after removal of metal-on-metal hip replacements: 16 patients followed for 0–12 months. Acta Orthop, 85, 259–65.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ebert B, Jelkmann W. (2014). Intolerability of cobalt salt as erythropoietic agent. Drug Test Anal, 6, 185–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ebreo D, Khan A, El-Meligy M, Armstrong C, Peter V. (2011). Metal ion levels decrease after revision for metallosis arising from large-diameter metal-on-metal hip arthroplasty. Acta Orthop Belg, 77, 777–81.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elinder CG, Friberg L. (1986). Chapter 9.Cobalt. In: Friberg L, Nordberg G Vouk VB, Eds. Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals. New York: Elsevier Science Pub. Co. pp. 211–232.
   Google Scholar
• Fasano WJ, Kennedy GL, Szostek B, Farrar DG, Ward RJ, Haroun L, Hinderliter PM. (2005). Penetration of ammonium perfluorooctanoate through rat and human skin in vitro. Drug Chem Toxicol, 28, 79–90.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finley BL, Monnot AD, Gaffney SH, Paustenbach DJ. (2012a). Dose-response relationships for blood cobalt concentrations and health effects: A review of the literature and application of a biokinetic model. J Tox Environ Health B, 15, 493–523.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finley BL, Monnot AD, Paustenbach DJ, Gaffney SH. (2012b). Derivation of a chronic oral reference dose for cobalt. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol, 64, 491–503.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finley BL, Unice KM, Kerger BD, Otani JM, Paustenbach DJ, Galbraith DA, Tvermoes BE. (2013). 31-day study of cobalt (II) chloride ingestion in humans: Pharmacokinetics and clinical effects. J Toxicol Environ Health A, 76, 1210–24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fleming MD, Romano MA, Su MA, Garrick LM, Garrick MD, Andrews NC. (1998). Nramp2 is mutated in the anemic Belgrade (b) rat: evidence of a role for Nramp2 in endosomal iron transport. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 95, 1148–53.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fountain JR, Dales M. (1955). Pure red-cell aplasia successfully treated with cobalt. Lancet, 265, 541–3.
   Google Scholar
• Gal J, Hursthouse A, Tatner P, Stewart F, Welton R. (2008). Cobalt and secondary poisoning in the terrestrial food chain: data review and research gaps to support risk assessment. Environ Intl, 34, 821–38.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gardner FH. (1953). The use of cobaltous chloride in the anemia associated with chronic renal disease. J Lab Clin Med, 41, 56–64.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garrick MD, Singleton ST, Vargas F, Kuo HC, Zhao L, Knöpfel M, et al. (2006). DMT1: which metals does it transport? Biol Res, 39, 79–85.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giampreti A, Lonati D, Locatelli CA. (2014). Reply to letter by Devlin et al.-Chelation in suspected prosthetic hip-associated cobalt toxicity. Can J Cardiol, 30, 465.e13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harp MJ, Scoular FI. (1952). Cobalt metabolism of young college women on self-selected diets. J Nutr, 47, 67–72.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hasegawa M, Yoshida K, Wakabayashi H, Sudo A. (2012). Cobalt and chromium ion release after large-diameter metal-on-metal total hip arthroplasty. J Arthroplasty, 27, 990–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heaton KT, Dorr LD. (2001). Total hip arthroplasty with metasul articulation. Oper Tech Orthopaed, 11, 244–52.
   Google Scholar
• Holzwarth U, Cotogno G. (2012). Total Hip Arthroplasty: State of the Art, Challenges and Prospects. July 2012. Luxembourg: Publications Office.
   Google Scholar
• Hopps HC, Stanley AJ, Shideler AM. (1954). Polycythemia induced by cobalt. III. Histologic studies with evaluation of toxicity of cobaltous chloride. Am J Clin Pathol, 24, 1374–80.
   Google Scholar
• Hubert N, Hentze MW. (2002). Previously uncharacterized isoforms of divalent metal transporter (DMT)-1: Implications for regulation and cellular function. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 99, 12345–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer). (2006). Cobalt in Hard Metals and Cobalt Sulfate, Gallium Arsenide, Indium Phosphide and Vanadium Pentoxide. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Volume 86. Lyon, France: World Health Organization.
   Google Scholar
• Ikeda T, Takahashi K, Kabata T, Sakagoshi D, Tomita K, Yamada M. (2010). Polyneuropathy caused by cobalt–chromium metallosis after total hip replacement. Musc Nerv, 42, 140–3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IOM (Institute of Medicine). (1998). Chapter 9. Vitamin B12. In: Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. pp. 306–56.
   Google Scholar
• Janicek P, Tomas T, Klepac L, Pelclova D, Sklensky M. (2012). Chronic intoxication with cobalt following revision total hip arthroplasty. Hip Intl, [Online] Available at: http://www.hip-int.com/article/chronic-intoxication-with-cobalt-following-revision-total-hip-arthroplasty (accessed 1 November 2012).
   Google Scholar
• Jantzen C, Jorgensen HL, Duus BR, Sporring SL, Lauritzen JB. (2013). Chromium and cobalt ion concentrations in blood and serum following various types of metal-on-metal hip arthroplasties. Acta Orthop, 84, 229–36.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jelkmann W, Lundby C. (2011). Blood doping and its detection. Blood, 118, 2395–404.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kabo JM, Gebhard JS, Loren G, Amstutz HC. (1993). In vivo wear of polyethylene acetabular components. J Bone Joint Surg Br, 75, 254–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karovic O, Tonazzini I, Rebola N, Edström E, Lövdahl C, Fredholm BB, Daré E. (2007). Toxic effects of cobalt in primary cultures of mouse astrocytes. Similarities with hypoxia and role of HIF-1alpha. Biochem Pharmacol, 73, 694–708.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerger BD, Tvermoes BE, Unice KM, Finley BL, Paustenbach DJ, Galbraith DA. (2013). Cobalt speciation assay for human serum. Part II. Method validation in a study of human volunteers ingesting Cobalt (II) Chloride Dietary Supplement for 90 days. Toxicol Environ Chem, 95, 709–18.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kesteloot H, Roelandt J, Willems J, Claes JH, Joossens JV. (1968). An enquiry into the role of cobalt in the heart disease of chronic beer drinkers. Circulation, 37, 854–64.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kindsfater KA, Sychterz Terefenko CJ, Gruen TA, Sherman CM. (2012). Minimum 5-Year results of modular metal-on-metal total hip arthroplasty. J Arthroplasty, 27, 545–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kriss JP, Carnes WH, Gross RT. (1955). Hypothyroidism and thyroid hyperplasia in patients treated with cobalt. JAMA, 157, 117–21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langkamer VG, Case CP, Heap P, Taylor A, Collins C, Pearse M, Solomon L. (1992). Systemic distribution of wear debris after hip replacement. A cause for concern? J Bone Joint Surg Br, 74, 831–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee CC, Wolterink LF. (1955). Urinary excretion, tubular reabsorption and biliary excretion of cobalt 60 in dogs. Am J Physiol, 183, 167–72.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee E, Eom J-E, Jeon K-H, Kim TH, Kim E, Jhon GJ, Kwon Y. (2014). Evaluation of albumin structural modifications through cobalt-albumin binding (CAB) assay. J Pharm Biomed Anal, 91, 17–23.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leggett RW. (2008). The biokinetics of inorganic cobalt in the human body. Sci Total Environ, 389, 259–69.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leikin JB, Karydes HC, Whiteley PM, Wills BK, Cumpston KL, Jacobs JJ. (2013). Outpatient toxicology clinic experience of patients with hip implants. Clin Toxicol, 51, 230–6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Letourneau EG, Jack GC, McCullough RS, Hollins JG. (1972). The metabolism of cobalt by the normal human male: Whole body retention and radiation dosimetry. Health Phys, 22, 451–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Licht A, Oliver M, Rachmilewitz EA. (1972). Optic atrophy following treatment with cobalt chloride in a patient with pancytopenia and hypercellular marrow. Isr J Med Sci, 8, 61–6.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lippi G, Franchini M, Guidi GC. (2006). Blood doping by cobalt. Should we measure cobalt in athletes? J Occup Med Toxicol, 1, e1–3.
   Google Scholar
• Lison D. (2007). Cobalt. In: Nordberg G, Fowler BA, Nordberg M, Friberg L. Eds. Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals, Chapter 25. Amsterdam; Boston: Academic Press. pp. 511–28.
   Google Scholar
• MacDonald SJ. (2004). Metal-on-metal total hip arthroplasty: The concerns. Clin Orthop, 429, 86–93.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Machado C, Appelbe A, Wood R. (2012). Arthroprosthetic cobaltism and cardiomyopathy. Heart Lung Circ, 21, 759–60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Macnair RD, Wynn-Jones H, Wimhurst JA, Toms A, Cahir J. (2012). Metal ion levels not sufficient as a screening measure for adverse reactions in metal-on-metal hip arthroplasties. J Arthroplasty, 28, 78–83.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahalingam K, Reidy D. (1996). Smith-Petersen vitallium mould arthroplasty: A 45-year follow-up. J Bone Joint Surg Br, 78, 496–7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Manifold IH, Platts MM, Kennedy A. (1978). Cobalt cardiomyopathy in a patient on maintenance haemodialysis. Br Med J, 2, 1609–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mao X, Wong AA, Crawford RW. (2011). Cobalt toxicity—an emerging clinical problem in patients with metal-on-metal hip prostheses? Med J Aust, 194, 649–51.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayo Clinic. (2013). Test Catalog. Test ID: COS (80084) Cobalt, Serum. Accessed on August 1, 2013, from: http://www.mayomedicallaboratories.com/test-catalog/print/80084.
   Google Scholar
• McMinn D, Daniel J. (2006). History and modern concepts in surface replacement. Proc Inst Mech l Eng Part H J Eng Med, 220, 239–51.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meecham HM, Humphrey P. (1991). Industrial exposure to cobalt causing optic atrophy and nerve deafness: a case report. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 54, 374–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meltzer HM, Brantsaeter AL, Borch-Iohnsen B, Ellingsen DG, Alexander J, Thomassen Y, et al. (2010). Low iron stores are related to higher blood concentrations of manganese, cobalt and cadmium in non-smoking, Norwegian women in the HUNT 2 study. Environ Res, 110, 497–504.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michel R, Nolte M, Reich M, Löer F. (1991). Systemic effects of implanted prostheses made of cobalt-chromium alloys. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg, 110, 61–74.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Migaud H, Putman S, Combes A, Berton C, Bocquet D, Vasseur L, Girard J. (2012). Metal-on-metal bearing: Is this the end of the line? We do not think so. HSS J, 8, 262–9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Minoia C, Sabbioni E, Apostoli P, Pietra R, Pozzoli L, Gallorini M, (1990). Trace element reference values in tissues from inhabitants of the European community. I. A study of 46 elements in urine, blood and serum of Italian subjects. Sci Total Environ, 95, 89–105.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monnot AD, Christian WV, Paustenbach DJ, Finley BL. (2014). Correlation of blood Cr(III) and adverse health effects: application of PBPK modeling to determine non-toxic blood concentrations. Crit Rev Toxicol, 44, 618–37.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morin Y, Daniel P. (1967). Quebec beer-drinkers’ cardiomyopathy: etiological considerations. Can Med Assoc J, 97, 926–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morin Y, Tetu A, Mercier G. (1971). Cobalt cardiomyopathy: Clinical aspects. Br Heart J, 33, 175–8.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Moshtaghie AA, Badii A, Mohammadian T. (2004). The comparative study of binding characteristics of cobalt and iron to human serum transferrin. J Res Med Sci, 9, 250–4.
   Google Scholar
• Mothes E, Faller P. (2007). Evidence that the principal CoII-binding site in human serum albumin is not at the N-terminus: implication on the albumin cobalt binding test for detecting myocardial ischemia. Biochemistry (Mosc), 46, 2267–74.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nandedkar AKN, Basu PK, Friedberg F. (1972). Co++ binding by plasma proteins. Bioinorg Chem, 2, 149–57.
   Google Scholar
• Northover JR, Maqsood M. (2008). 58-year follow-up of a vitallium mold hip arthroplasty: A case report and literature review. Acta Orthop, 79, 731–3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oldenburg M, Wegner R, Baur X. (2009). Severe cobalt intoxication due to prosthesis wear in repeated total hip arthroplasty. J Arthroplasty, 24, 825.e15–825.e20.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Onkelinx C. (1976). Compartment analysis of cobalt (II) metabolism in rats of various ages. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 38, 425–38.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paavolainen P, Pukkala E, Pulkkinen P, Visuri T. (1999a). Cancer incidence after total knee arthroplasty: A nationwide Finnish cohort from 1980 to 1996 involving 9,444 patients. Acta Orthop Scand, 70, 609–17.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paavolainen P, Pukkala E, Pulkkinen P, Visuri T. (1999b). Cancer incidence in Finnish hip replacement patients from 1980 to 1995: a nationwide cohort study involving 31,651 patients. J Arthroplasty, 14, 272–80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patty FA, Fassett DW, Irish DD. (1962). The metals. In: Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology. Volume II: Toxicology. Second Revised Edition. New York: Wiley. pp. 1022–1033.
   Google Scholar
• Paustenbach DJ, Galbraith DA, Finley BL. (2014). Interpreting cobalt blood concentrations in hip implant patients. Clin Toxicol, 52, 98–112.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paustenbach DJ, Tvermoes BE, Unice KM, Finley BL, Kerger BD. (2013). A review of the health hazards posed by cobalt. Crit Rev Toxicol, 43, 316–62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pelclova D, Sklensky M, Janicek P, Lach K. (2012). Severe cobalt intoxication following hip replacement revision: clinical features and outcome. Clin Toxicol, 50, 262–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prentice JR, Clark MJ, Hoggard N, Morton AC, Tooth C, Paley MN, et al. (2013). Metal-on-metal hip prostheses and systemic health: a cross-sectional association study 8 years after implantation. PLoS ONE, 8, e66186–95.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quinlivan EP. (2008). Calculation of steady state conditions and elimination kinetics of red blood cell folate in women of childbearing age after daily supplementation with various forms and doses of folate. Am J Clin Nutr, 87, 1537–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radcliffe SN, Geary NPJ. (1997). 46-year survival of a Smith-Petersen mold arthroplasty. J Arthroplasty, 12, 584–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Randelli F, Banci L, D’Anna A, Visentin O, Randelli G. (2012). Cementless Metasul metal-on-metal total hip arthroplasties at 13 years. J Arthroplasty, 27, 186–92.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rankin EB, Biju MP, Liu Q, Unger TL, Rha J, Johnson RS, et al. (2007). Hypoxia-inducible factor-2 (HIF-2) regulates hepatic erythropoietin in vivo. J Clin Invest, 117, 1068–77.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reuber S, Kreuzer M, Kirchgessner M. (1994). Interactions of cobalt and iron in absorption and retention. J Trace Elem Electrolytes Health Dis, 8, 151–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rizzetti MC, Liberini P, Zarattini G, Catalani S, Pazzaglia U, Apostoli P, Padovani A. (2009). Loss of sight and sound. Could it be the hip? Lancet, 373, 1052.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson JC, James GW III, Kark RM. (1949). The effect of oral therapy with cobaltous chloride on the blood of patients suffering with chronic suppurative infection. N Engl J Med, 240, 749–53.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roche M, Layrisse M. (1956). Effect of cobalt on thyroidal uptake of I131. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 16, 831–3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schirrmacher UO. (1967). Case of cobalt poisoning. Br Med J, 1, 544–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schleisner P. (1956). Cobalt in anaemia. Acta Med Scand, 154, 177–85.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simonsen LO, Brown AM, Harbak H, Kristensen BI, Bennekou P. (2011). Cobalt uptake and binding in human red blood cells. Blood Cells Mol Dis, 46, 266–76.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simonsen LO, Harbak H, Bennekou P. (2012). Cobalt metabolism and toxicology-A brief update. Sci Total Environ, 432C, 210–5.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith-Petersen MN. (1939). Arthroplasty of the hip: A new method. J Bone Joint Surg, 21, 269–88.
   Google Scholar
• Smith AJ, Dieppe P, Porter M, Blom AW; National Joint Registry of England and Wales. (2012). Risk of cancer in first seven years after metal-on-metal hip replacement compared with other bearings and general population: Linkage study between the National Joint Registry of England and Wales and hospital episode statistics. BMJ, 344, e2383–94.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith T, Edmonds CJ, Barnaby CF. (1972). Absorption and retention of cobalt in man by whole-body counting. Health Phys, 22, 359–67.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sorbie J, Olatunbosun D, Corbett WE, Valberg LS. (1971). Cobalt excretion test for the assessment of body iron stores. Can Med Assoc J, 104, 777–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steens W, von Foerster G, Katzer A. (2006). Severe cobalt poisoning with loss of sight after ceramic-metal pairing in a hip–a case report. Acta Orthop, 77, 830–2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sullivan J, Parker M, Carson SB. (1968). Tissue cobalt content in “beer drinkers” myocardiopathy. J Lab Clin Med, 71, 893–11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sullivan JF, Egan JD, George RP. (1969). A distinctive myocardiopathy occurring in Omaha, Nebraska: Clinical aspects. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 156, 526–43.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor A, Marks V, Shabaan AA, Mahmood HA, Duckham JM, Lee HA. (1977). Cobalt-induced lipaemia and erythropoiesis. In: Clinical Chemistry and Chemical Toxicology of Metals: Proceedings of the First International Symposium. pp. 105–8.
   Google Scholar
• Thomson AB, Valberg LS. (1972). Intestinal uptake of iron, cobalt, and manganese in the iron-deficient rat. Am J Physiol, 223, 1327–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tipton IH, Cook MJ. (1963). Trace elements in human tissue. II. Adult subjects from the United States. Health Phys, 9, 103–45.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tower SS. (2010). Cobalt toxicity in two hip replacement patients. State AL Epid Bull, 14, 1.
   Google Scholar
• Tvermoes B, Otani J, Unice K, Finley B, Paustenbach DJ, Galbraith D; ChemRisk LLC. (2012). P 119. Investigation of cobalt steady-state levels in five healthy adult volunteers taking 14-days of a cobalt supplement. In: Society for Risk Analysis. Risk Analysis: Advancing Analysis. 2012 Annual Meeting: 9–12 December, Hyatt Regency San Francisco, San Francisco, California. McLean, VA: Society for Risk Analysis.
   Google Scholar
• Tvermoes BE, Finley BL, Unice KM, Otani JM, Paustenbach DJ, Galbraith DA. (2013). Cobalt whole blood concentrations in healthy adult male volunteers following two-weeks of ingesting a cobalt supplement. Food Chem Toxicol, 53, 432–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tvermoes BE, Unice KM, Paustenbach DJ, Finley BL, Otani JM, Galbraith DA. (2014). Effects and blood concentrations of cobalt after ingestion of 1 mg/d by human volunteers for 90 d. Am J Clin Nutr, 99, 623–46.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Unice K, Monnot A, Gaffney SH, Tvermoes BE, Thuett KA, Paustenbach DJ, Finley BL. (2012). Inorganic cobalt supplementation: Prediction of cobalt levels in whole blood and urine using a biokinetic model. Food Chem Toxicol, 50, 2456–61.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Unice KM, Kerger BD, Paustenbach DJ, Finley BL, Tvermoes BE. (2014). Refined biokinetic model for humans exposed to cobalt dietary supplements and other sources of systemic cobalt exposure. Chem Biol Interact, 216, 53–74.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Urban RM, Jacobs JJ, Tomlinson MJ, Gavrilovic J, Black J, Peoc'h M. (2000). Dissemination of wear particles to the liver, spleen, and abdominal lymph nodes of patients with hip or knee replacement. J Bone Joint Surg Am, 82, 457–76.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency). (2008). Provisional Peer Reviewed Toxicity Values for Cobalt (CASRN 7440-48-4). Cincinnati, OH: Environmental Protection Agency.
   Google Scholar
• USFDA (United States Food and Drug Administration). (2012). Appendix A: Hip Implant Device Utilization in the U.S. Accessed on March 28, 2014: http://www.fda.gov/downloads/AdvisoryCommittees/CommitteesMeetingMaterials/MedicalDevices/MedicalDevicesAdvisoryCommittee/OrthopaedicandRehabilitationDevicesPanel/UCM309350.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Valberg LS, Ludwig J, Olatunbosun D. (1969). Alteration in cobalt absorption in patients with disorders of iron metabolism. Gastroenterology, 56, 241–51.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Visuri T, Pukkala E, Paavolainen P, Pulkkinen P, Riska EB. (1996). Cancer risk after metal on metal and polyethylene on metal total hip arthroplasty. Clin Orthop, 329 Suppl, S280–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wareing M, Ferguson CJ, Green R, Riccardi D, Smith CP. (2000). In vivo characterization of renal iron transport in the anaesthetized rat. J Physiol (Lond), 524 Pt 2, 581–6.
   Google Scholar
• Weber BG. (1996). Experience with the Metasul total hip bearing system. Clin Orthop, 329S, S69–77.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weidinger S, Cleve H, Schwarzfischer F, Postel W, Weser J, Görg A. (1984). Transferrin subtypes and variants in Germany; further evidence for a Tf null allele. Hum Genet, 66, 356–60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wenger RH, Kurtz A. (2011). Erythropoietin. Compreh Physiol, 1, 1759–94.
   Google Scholar
• Willert HG, Semlitsch M. (1977). Reactions of the articular capsule to wear products of artificial joint prostheses. J Biomed Mater Res, 11, 157–64.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witt JD, Swann M. (1991). Metal wear and tissue response in failed titanium alloy total hip replacements. J Bone Joint Surg Br, 73, 559–63.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright TM, Closkey RF. (2006). Properties of biomaterials used in joint replacements. In: Shanbhag A, Rubash HE Jacobs JJ, Eds. Joint Replacement and Bone Resorption: Pathology, Biomaterials, and Clinical Practice, Chapter 7. New York: Taylor & Francis. pp. 123–44.
   Google Scholar
• Zatta P, Messori L, Mauri P, van Rensburg SJ, van Zyl J, Gabrielli S, Gabbiani C. (2005). The C2 variant of human serum transferrin retains the iron binding properties of the native protein. Biochim Biophys Acta, 1741, 264–70.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zywiel MG, Brandt JM, Overgaard CB, Cheung AC, Turgeon TR, Syed KA. (2013). Fatal cardiomyopathy after revision total hip replacement for fracture of a ceramic liner. Bone Joint J, 95, 31–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar