Advanced search
Publication Cover
Critical Reviews in Toxicology Volume 27, 1997 - Issue 4
Submit an article Journal homepage
92
Views
32
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Differential Effects of 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-P-Dioxin,bis(Tri-N-Butyltin)Oxide and Cyclosporine on Thymus Histophysiology

Eric J. De Waal Laboratory for Medicines and Medical Devices, National Institute of Public Health and The Environment, P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
,
Henk-Jan Schuurman Preclinical Research/Transplantation, Building 386/101B, Sandoz Pharma Ltd, CH-4002, Basel, Switzerland
,
Henk van Loveren laboratory for Pathology and Immunobiology, National Institute of Public Health and The Environment, P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
&
Joseph G. Vos laboratory for Pathology and Immunobiology, National Institute of Public Health and The Environment, P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA, Bilthoven, The Netherlands
Pages 381-430 | Published online: 25 Sep 2008

References

  • Abbott B. D., Birnbaum L. S. TCDD alters medial epithelial cell differentiation during palato-genesis. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1989; 99: 276
  • Abbott B. D., Birnbaum L. S. Rat embryonic palatal shelves respond to TCDD in organ culture. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1990; 103: 441
  • Abbott B. D., Diliberto J. J., Birnbaum L. S. 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin alters embryonic palatal medial epithelial cell differentiation. in vitro, Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1989; 100: 119
  • Adkins B., Candour D., Strober S., Weissman I. Total lymphoid irradiation leads to transient depletion of the mouse thymic medulla and persistent abnormalities among medullary stromal cells. J. Immunol. 1988; 140: 3373
  • Aguilar L. K., Aguilar-Cordova E., Cartwright J., Belmont J. W. Thymic nurse cells are sites ofthymocyteapoptosis. J. Immunol. 1994; 152: 2645
  • Antica M., Wu L., Shortman K., Scollay R. Intrathymic lymphoid precursor cells during fetal thymus development. J. Immunol. 1993; 151: 5887
  • Ardavin C., Shortman K. Cell surface marker analysis of mouse thymic dendritic cells. Eur. J. Immunol. 1992; 22: 859
  • Ardavin C., Wu L., Li C.-L., Shortman K. Thymic dendritic cells and T cells develop simultaneously in the thymus from a common precursor population. Nature 1993; 362: 761
  • Ardavin C., Wu L., Ferrero I., Shortman K. Mouse thymic dendritic cell subpopulations. Immunol. Letters 1993; 38: 19
  • Ashton-Rickardt P. G., Tonegawa S. A differential-avidity model for T-cell selection. Immunol. Today 1994; 15: 362
  • Ashton-Rickardt P. G., Bandeira A., Delaney J. R., Van Kaer L., Pircher H.-P., Zinkernagel R. M., Tonegawa S. Evidence for a differential avidity model of T cell selection in the thymus. Cell 1994; 76: 651
  • Austyn J. M. Lymphoid dendritic cells. Immunology 1987; 62: 161
  • Aw T. Y., Nicotera P., Manzo L., Orrenius S. Tributyltin stimulates apoptosis in rat thymocytes. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1990; 283: 46
  • Babcock S. K., Georgiu H., Kotzin B., Bellgrau D. Cyclosporin-induced autoimmunity: a role for marrow-derived cells presenting self antigens in the thymus. Transplant. Proc. 1989; 21: 220
  • Balk J. L., Piper W. N. Altered blood levels of corticosteroids in the rat after exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. Biochem. Pharmacol. 1984; 33: 2531
  • Banuls M. P., Alvarez A., Ferrero I., Zapata A., Ardavin C. Cell-surface marker analysis of rat thymic dendritic cells. Immunology 1993; 79: 298
  • Bearman R. M., Levine G. D., Bensch K. G. The ultrastructure of the normal human thymus. A study of 36 cases. Anat. Rec. 1978; 190: 755
  • Bellinger D. L., Lorton D., Felten S. Y., Felten D. L. Innervation of lymphoid organs and implications in development, aging, and autoimmunity. Int. J. Immunopharmacol. 1992; 14: 329
  • Benoist C., Mathis D. Positive selection of the T cell repertoire: where and when does it occur. Cell 1989; 58: 1027
  • Beschorner W. E., Armas O. A. Loss of medullary dendritic cells in the thymus after cyclosporine and irradiation. Cell. Immunol. 1991; 132: 505
  • Beschorner W. E., Namnoun J. D., Hess A. D., Shinn C. A., Santos G. W. Cyclosporin A and the thymus. Immunopathology. Am. J. Pathol. 1987; 126: 487
  • Beschorner W. E., Di Gennaro K. A., Hess A. D., Santos G. W. Cyclosporine and the thymus: influence of irradiation and age on thymic immunopathology and recovery. Cell. Immunol. 1987; 110: 350
  • Beschorner W. E., Namnoum J. D., Hess A. D. Immunopathology of rat thymus after cyclosporine A. Transplant. Proc. 1987; 19: 1230
  • Beschorner W. E., Olson J. L., Hess A. D., Di Gennaro K. A., Santos G. W. Cyclosporine-induced cell-mediated injury of the thymic medullary epithelium. Transplantation 1988; 45: 797
  • Beschorner W. E., Shinn C. A., Fischer A. C., Santos G. W., Hess A. D. Cyclosporine-in-duced pseudo-graft-vs.-host disease in the early post-cyclosporine period. Transplantation 1988; 46: 112S
  • Beschorner W. E., Hess A. D., Shinn C. A., Santos G. W. Transfer of cyclosporine-associated syngeneic graft-versus-host disease by thymocytes. Resemblance to chronic graft-versus-host disease. Transplantation 1988; 45: 209
  • Beschorner W. E., Ren H., Phillips J., Pulido H. B., Hruban R. H., Hess A. D. Prevention of syngeneic graft-vs.-host disease by recovery of thymic microenvironment after cyclosporine. Transplantation 1991; 52: 668
  • Besedovsky H. O., Del Rey A. Immune-neuro-endocrine interactions: facts and hypotheses. Endocr. Rev. 1996; 17: 64
  • Beijleveld L. J. J., Damoiseaux J. G. M. C., Van Breda Vriesman P. J.C. Differential effects of X-irradiation and cyclosporin-A administration on the thymus with respect to the generation of cyclosporin-A-induced autoimmunity. Dev. Immunol. 1995; 4: 127
  • Bill J., Palmer E. Positive selection of CD4+ T cells mediated by MHC class II-bearing stromal cells in the thymic cortex. Nature 1989; 341: 649
  • Birnbaum L. S. The mechanism of dioxin toxicity: relationship to risk assessment. Environ. Health Perspect. 1994; 102: (Suppl. 9), 157
  • Bix M., Raulet D. Inefficient positive selection of T cells directed by haematopoietic cells. Nature 1992; 359: 330
  • Blackman M., Kappler J., Marrack P. The role of the T cell receptor in positive and negative selection of developing T cells. Science 1990; 248: 1335
  • Blair J. T., Thomson A. W., Whiting P. H., Davidson R. J. L., Simpson J. G. Toxicity of the immune suppressant cyclosporin A in the rat. J. Pathol. 1982; 138: 163
  • Blaylock B. L., Holladay S. D., Comment S. E., Heindel J. J., Luster M. I. Exposure to tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) alters fetal thymocyte maturation. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1992; 112: 207
  • Bonomo A., Matzinger P. Thymus epithelium induces tissue-specific tolerance. J. Exp. Med. 1993; 177: 1153
  • Bonomo A., Kehn P. J., Shevach E. M. Premature escape of double-positive thymocytes to the periphery of young mice. Possible role in autoimmunity. J. Immunol. 1994; 152: 1509
  • Borel J. F. Pharmacology of cyclosporin (Sandimmune). Pharmacol. Rev. 1989; 42: 260, 1989
  • Boyd R. L., Hugo P. Towards an integrated view of thymopoiesis. Immunol. Today 1991; 12: 71
  • Boyd R. L., Tucek C. L., Godfrey D. I., Izon D. J., Wilson T. J., Davidson N. J., Bean A. G. D., Ladyman H. M., Ritter M. A., Hugo P. The thymic microenvironment. Immunol. Today 1993; 14: 445
  • Boyer I. J. Toxicity of dibutyltin, tributyltin and other organotin compounds to humans and to experimental animals. Toxicology 1989; 55: 253
  • Brekelmans P. J.A.M. T Cell Development in Mouse Thymus. Studies on Lymphostromal Interactions, thesis. Erasmus University, Rotterdam, The Netherlands 1993
  • Brelinska R., Kaczmarek E., Warchol J. B., Jaroszewski J. Distribution of different cell types within the rat thymus in the neonatal period of life. Cell Tissue Res. 1985; 240: 473
  • Brelinska R., Houben-Defresne M.-P., Boniver J. Multicellular complexes of thymocytes and different types of thymic stromal cells in the mouse. Cell Tissue Res. 1986; 244: 673
  • Bressa G., Hinton R. H., Price S. C., Isbir M., Ahmed R. S., Grasso P. Immunotoxicity of tri-n-butyltin oxide (TBTO) and tri-n-butyltin chloride (TBTC) in the rat. J. Appl. Toxicol. 1991; 11: 397
  • Bruijntjes J. P., Kuper C. F., Robinson J. E., Schuurman H.-J. Epithelium-free area in the thymic cortex of rats. Dev. Immunol. 1993; 3: 113
  • Bryson J. S., Caywood B. E., Kaplan A. M. Relationship of cyclosporine A-mediated inhibition of clonal deletion and development of syngeneic graft-vs.-host disease. J. Immunol. 1991; 147: 391
  • Bucy R. P., Xu X. Y., Li J., Huang G. Q. Cyclosporin A-induced autoimmune disease in mice. J. Immunol. 1993; 151: 1039
  • Burkly L. C., Degermann S., Longley J., Hagman J., Brinster R. L., Lo D., Flavell R. A. Clonal deletion of Vβ5+ T cells by transgenic I-E restricted to thymic medullary epithelium. J. Immunol. 1993; 151: 3954
  • Carlow D. A., Teh S.-J., Teh H.-S. Altered thymocyte development resulting from expressing a deleting ligand on selecting thymic epithelium. J. Immunol. 1992; 148: 2988
  • Carlstedt-Duke J. M. B. Tissue distribution of the receptor for 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in the rat. Cancer Res. 1979; 39: 3172
  • Chan S. H., Cosgrove D., Waltzinger C., Benoist C., Mathis D. Another view of the selective model of thymocyte selection. Cell 1993; 73: 225
  • Chen-Woan M., Goldschneider I. Evidence that cyclosporine treatment causes the appearance in rat lymph nodes of T cells having the antigenic phenotypes of cortical thymocytes. Transplantation 1991; 51: 661
  • Cheney R. T., Sprent J. Capacity of cyclosporine to induce auto-graft-versus-host disease and impair intrathymic T cell differentiation. Transplant. Proc. 1985; 17: 528
  • Chow S. K., Orrenius S. Rapid cytoskeleton modification in thymocytes induced by the immunotoxicant tributyltin. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1994; 127: 19
  • Chow L. H., Mosbach-Ozmen L., Ryffel B., Borel J. F. Syngeneic graft-vs.-host disease induced by cyclosporin — a reappraisal. Transplantation 1988; 46: 107S
  • Clarke A. G., McLennan K. A. The many facets of thymic involution. Immunol. Today 1986; 7: 204
  • Classen J. B., Shevach E. M. Postthymectomy organ-specific autoimmunity: enhancement by cyclosporine A and inhibition by IL-2. Autoimmunity 1993; 15: 55
  • Cohen J. J., Duke R. C. Glucocorticoid activation of a calcium-dependent endonuclease in thymocyte nuclei leads to cell death. J. Immunol. 1984; 132: 38
  • Cohen J. J., Duke R. C. Apoptosis and programmed cell death in immunity. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 1992; 10: 267
  • Colic M., Matanovic D., Hegedis L., Dujic A. Heterogeneity of rat thymic epithelium defined by monoclonal anti-keratin antibodies. Thymus 1988; 12: 123
  • Colic M., Matanovic D., Hegedis L., Dujic A. Immunohistochemical characterization of rat thymic non-lymphoid cells. I. Epithelial and mesenchymal components defined by monoclonal antibodies. Immunology 1988; 65: 277
  • Comment C. E., Blaylock B. L., Germolec D. R., Pollock P. L., Kouchi Y., Brown H. W., Rosenthal G. J., Luster M. I. Thymocyte injury afterin vitro chemical exposure: potential mechanisms for thymic atrophy. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1992; 262: 1267
  • Compton M. M., Cidlowski J. A. Rapidin vivo effects of glucocorticoids on the integrity of rat lymphocyte genomic deoxyribonucleic acid. Endocrinology 1986; 118: 38
  • Compton M. M., Caron L.-A. M., Cidlowski J. A. Glucocorticoid action on the immune system. J. Steroid Biochem. 1987; 27: 201
  • Cook J. C., Greenlee W. F. Characterization of a specific binding protein for 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in human thymic epithelial cells. Mol. Pharmacol. 1989; 35: 713
  • Cook J. C., Dold K. M., Greenlee W. F. Anin vitro model for studying the toxicity of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin to human thymus. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1987; 89: 256
  • Cordier A. C., Haumont S. M. Development of thymus, parathyroids, and ultimo-branchial bodies in NMRI and nude mice. Am. J. Anat. 1980; 157: 227
  • Cosgrove D., Chan S. H., Waltzinger C., Benoist C., Mathis D. The thymic compartment responsible for positive selection of CD4+ T cells. Int. Immunol. 1992; 4: 707
  • Crowley M., Inaba K., Witmer-Pack M., Steinman R. M. The cell surface of mouse dendritic cells: FACS analysis of dendritic cells from different tissues including thymus. Cell. Immunol. 1989; 118: 108
  • Damoiseaux J. G. M. C., Beijleveld L. J. J., Van Breda Vriesman P. J. C. Quantification and phenotvpic characterization of the rat thymic dendritic cell population uponin vivo cyclosporin administration. Transplant. Proc. 1993; 25: 2814
  • Damoiseaux J. G. M. C., Beijleveld L. J. J., Van Breda Vriesman P. J. C. The effects ofin vivo cyclosporin A administration on rat thymic dendritic cells. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 1994; 96: 513
  • Dardenne M., Savino W., Feutren G., Bach J.-F. Stimulatory effects of cyclosporin A on human and mouse thymic epithelial cells. Eur. J. Immunol. 1987; 17: 275
  • De Heer C., De Waal E. J., Schuurman H.-J., Vos J. G., Van Loveren H. The intrathymic target cell for the thymotoxic action of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. Exp. Clin. Immunogenet. 1994; 11: 86
  • De Heer C., Verlaan A. P. J., Penninks A. H., Vos J. G., Schuurman H.-J., Van Loveren H. Time course of 2,3.7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) induced thymic atrophy in the Wistar rat. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1994; 128: 97
  • De Heer C., Schuurman H.-J., Liem A. K. D., Penninks A. H., Vos J. G., Van Loveren H. Toxicity of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) to the human thymus after implantation in SCID mice. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1995; 134: 296
  • De Heer C., Van Driesten G., Schuurman H.-J., Rozing J., Van Loveren H. No evidence for emergence of autoreactive Vβ6+ T cells in Mls-la mice following exposure to a thymotoxic dose of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. Toxicology 1995; 103: 195
  • De Leeuw F.-E., Jansen G. H., Batanero E., Van Wichen D. F., Huber J., Van Loveren H. The neural and neuro-endocrine component of the human thymus. I. Nerve-like structures. Brain Behav. Immun. 1992; 6: 234
  • Dencker L., Hassoun E., D'Argy R., Aim G. Fetal thymus organ culture as anin vitro model for the toxicity of 2,3.7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin and its congeners. Mol. Pharmacol. 1985; 27: 133
  • De Waal E. J., Rademakers L. H. P. M., Schuurman H.-J., Van Loveren H., Vos J. G. Atrophy of the rat thymus. Effects of 2.3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin on the epithelial microenvironment assessed at the ultrastructural level: a comparison with bis(tri-n-butyltin)oxide. Lymphatic Tissues and In Vivo Immune responses, B. A. Imhof, S. Berrih-Aknin, S. Ezine. Marcel Dekker Inc., New York 1991; 117
  • De Waal E. J., Schuurman H.-J., Loeber J. G., Van Loveren H., Vos J. G. Alterations in the cortical thymic epithelium of rats afterin vivo exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD): an (immuno)histological study. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1992; 115: 80
  • De Waal E. J., Schuurman H.-J., Hendriksen C., Elvers B., Van Dijk A., Van Loveren H. Effects of subcutaneous vs. intravenous administration of cyclosporin A on rat thymic histology and pharmacokinetics. Int. J. Immunopharmacol. 1992; 14: 1101
  • De Waal E. J., Rademakers L. H. P. M., Schuurman H.-J., Van Loveren H. Interdigitating cells in the rat thymus during cyclosporin A treatment: ultrastructural observations. Thymus 1992; 20: 163
  • De Waal E. J., Schuurman H.-J., Rademakers L. H. P. M., Van Loveren H., Vos J. G. The cortical epithelium of the rat thymus afterin vivo exposure to bis(tri-n-butyltin)oxide (TBTO). An (immuno)histological and ultrastructural study. Arch. Toxicol. 1993; 67: 186
  • De Waal E. J., Rademakers L. H. P. M., Schuurman H.-J., Van Loveren H., Vos J. G. Ultrastructure of the cortical epithelium of the rat thymus afterin vivo exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). Arch. Toxicol. 1993; 67: 558
  • De Waal E. J., Rademakers L. H. P. M., Schuurman H.-J., Vos J. G., Van Loveren H. Alterations of dendritic cells in the rat thymus without epithelial cell loss during cyclosporine treatment and recovery. Toxicology 1996; 110: 133
  • De Waal Malefijt R., Leene W., Roholl P. J. M., Wormmeester J., Hoeben K. A. T cell differentiation within thymic nurse cells. Lab. Invest. 1986; 55: 25
  • Dipasquale B., Tridente G. Immunohistochemical characterization of nurse cells in normal human thymus. Histochemistry 1991; 96: 499
  • Dourov N. Thymic atrophy and immune deficiency in malnutrition in the human thymus. Curr. Top. Pathol. 1986; 75: 127
  • Duijvestijn A. M., Köhler Y. G., Hoefsmit E. C. M. Interdigitating cells and macrophages in the acute involuting rat thymus. An electron-microscopic study on phagocytic activity and population development. Cell Tissue Res. 1982; 224: 291
  • Egerton M., Scollay R., Shortman K. Kinetics of mature T-cell development in the thymus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 1990; 87: 2579
  • Elliott J. I. The identity of the cells that positively select thymocytes. Immunol. Rev. 1993; 135: 215
  • Eren R., Globerson A., Abel L., Zharhary D. Quantitative analysis of bone marrow thymic progenitors in young and aged mice. Cell. Immunol. 1990; 127: 238
  • Erlanger B. F. Do we know the site of action of cyclosporin. Immunol. Today 1992; 13: 487
  • Esser C., Welzel M. Ontogenic development of murine fetal thymocytes is accelerated by 3,3′,4,4′-tetrachlorobiphenyl. Int. J. Immunopharmacol. 1993; 15: 841
  • Exon J. H., Mather G. G., Bussiere J. L., Olson D. P., Talcott P. A. Effects of subchronic exposure of rats to 2-methoxyethanol or 2-butoxyethanol: thymic atrophy and immunotoxicity. Fund. Appl. Toxicol. 1991; 16: 830
  • Fabien N. H., Auger C., Moreira A., Monier J. C. Effects of cyclosporin A on mouse thymus: immunocytochemical and ultrastructural studies. Thymus 1992; 20: 153
  • Fairchild P. J., Austyn J. M. Thymic dendritic cells: phenotype and function. Int. Rev. Immunol. 1990; 6: 187
  • Faith R. E., Luster M. I. Investigations on the effects of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) on parameters of various immune functions. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1979; 320: 564
  • Faith R. E., Moore J. A. Impairment of thymus-dependent immune functions by exposure of the developing immune system to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1977; 3: 451
  • Fan F., Wierda D., Rozman K. K. Effects of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin on humoral and cell-mediated immunity in Sprague-Dawley rats. Toxicology 1996; 106: 221
  • Farr A., Braddy S. C. Patterns of keratin expression in the murine thymus. Anat. Rec. 1989; 224: 374
  • Farr A. G., Nakane P. K. Cells bearing Ia antigens in the murine thymus. An ultrastructural study. Am. J. Pathol. 1983; 111: 88
  • Farr A. G., Anderson S. K., Marrack P., Kappler J. Expression of antigen-specific, major histocompatibility complex-restricted receptors by cortical and medullary thymocytes. in situ, Cell 1985; 43: 543
  • Farr A., Nelson A., Hosier S. Characterization of an antigenic determinant preferentially expressed by type I epithelial cells in the murine thymus. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 1992; 40: 651
  • Fawthrop D. J., Boobis A. R., Davies D. S. Mechanisms of cell death. Arch. Toxicol. 1991; 65: 437
  • Feron V. J., De Groot A. P., Spanjers M. T., Til H. P. An evaluation of the criterion “organ weight” under conditions of growth retardation. Food. Cosmet. Toxicol. 1973; 11: 85
  • Fine J. S., Gasiewicz T. A., Silverstone A. E. Lymphocyte stem cell alterations following perinatal exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. Mol Pharmacol. 1989; 35: 18
  • Fine J. S., Silverstone A. E., Gasiewicz T. A. Impairment of prothymocyte activity by 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. J. Immunol. 1990; 144: 1169
  • Fine J. S., Gasiewicz T. A., Fiore N. C., Silverstone A. E. Prothymocyte activity is reduced by perinatal 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin exposure. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1990; 255: 128
  • Fischer A. C., Hess A. D. Age-related factors in cyclosporine-induced syngeneic graft-vs.-host disease: regulatory role of marrow-derived T lymphocytes. J. Exp. Med. 1990; 172: 85
  • Fischer A. C., Beschorner W. E., Hess A. D. Requirements for the induction and adoptive transfer of cyclosporine-induced syngeneic graft-vs.-host disease. J. Exp. Med. 1989; 169: 1031
  • Fischer A. C., Ruvolo P. P., Burt R., Horwitz L. R., Bright E. C., Hess J. M., Beschorner W. E, Hess A. D. Characterization of the autoreactive T cell repertoire in cyclosporin-induced syngeneic graft-vs.-host disease. A highly conserved repertoire mediates autoaggression. J. Immunol. 1995; 154: 3713
  • Foerster M., Kastner U., Neubert R. Effect of six virustatic nucleoside analogues on the development of fetal rat thymus in organ culture. Arch. Toxicol. 1992; 66: 688
  • Foerster M., Merker H.-J., Stahlmann R., Neubert D. Effect of acyclovirin vitro on lymphopoiesis in the foetal rat thymus. Toxicol. In Vitro 1992; 6: 207
  • Fossum S., Rolstad B., Ford W. L. Thymus independence, kinetics and phagocytic ability of inter-digitating cells. Immunobiology 1984; 168: 403
  • Fowlkes B. J., Schwartz R. H., Pardoll D. M. Deletion of self-reactive thymocytes occurs at a CD4+CD8+ precursor stage. Nature 1988; 334: 620
  • Foxwell B. M. J., Woerly G., Husi J., Mackie A., Quesniaux V. F. J., Hiestand P. C., Wenger R. M., Ryffel B. Identification of several cyclosporine binding proteins in lymphoid and non-lymphoid cells in vivo. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1992; 1138: 115
  • Frazier D. E., Silverstone A. E., Gasiewicz T. A. 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin-induced thymic atrophy and lymphocyte stem cell alterations by mechanisms independent of the estrogen receptor. Biochem. Pharmacol. 1994; 47: 2039
  • Frazier D. E., Silverstone A. E., Soults J. A., Gasiewicz T. A. The thymus does not mediate 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin-elicited alterations in bone marrow lymphocyte stem cells. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1994; 124: 242
  • Freier D. O., Fuchs B. A. Morphine-induced alterations in thymocyte subpopulations of B6C3F1 mice. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1993; 265: 81
  • Fuchs B. A., Pruett S. B. Morphine induces apoptosis in murine thymocytesin vivo but notin vitro: involvement of both opiate and glucocorticoid receptors. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1993; 266: 417
  • Fuchs B. A., Sanders V. M. The role of brain-immune interactions in immunotoxicology. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 1994; 24: 151
  • Fukumoto T., McMaster W. R., Williams A. F. Mouse monoclonal antibodies against rat major histocompatibility antigens. Two la antigens and expression of Ia and class I antigens in rat thymus. Eur. J. Immunol. 1982; 12: 237
  • Fukuzawa M., Sharrow S. O., Shearer G. M. Effect of cyclosporin A on T cell immunity. II. Defective thymic education of CD4 T helper cell function in cyclosporin A-treated mice. Eur. J. Immunol. 1989; 19: 1147
  • Funahashi N., Iwasaki I., Ide G. Effects ofbis(tri-n-butyltin)oxide on endocrine and lymphoid organs of male rats. Acta Pathol. Jpn. 1980; 30: 955
  • Gao E.-K, Lo D., Cheney R., Kanagawa O., Sprent J. Abnormal differentiation of thymocytes in mice treated with cyclosporin A. Nature 1988; 336: 176
  • Gaido K. W., Maness S. C. Regulation of gene expression and acceleration of differentiation in human keratinocytes by 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1994; 127: 199
  • Gasiewicz T. A., Rucci G. Cytosolic receptor of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. Evidence for a homologous nature among various mammalian species. Mol. Pharmacol. 1984; 26: 90
  • Gasiewicz T. A., Ness W. C., Rucci G. Ontogeny of the cytosolic receptor for 2,3.7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in rat liver, lung and thymus. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. 1984; 118: 183
  • Geenen V., Robert F., Martens H., De Groote D., Franchimont P. The thymic education of developing T cells in self neuroendocrine principles. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 1992; 15: 621
  • Germolec D. R., Henry E. C., Maronpot R., Foley J. F., Adams N. H., Gasiewicz T. A., Luster M. I. Induction of CYP1A1 and ALDH-3 in lymphoid tissues from Fisher 344 rats exposed to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1996; 137: 57
  • Glazier A., Tutschka P. J., Farmer E. R., Santos G. W. Graft-vs.-host disease in cyclosporin A-treated rats after syngeneic and autologous bone marrow reconstitution. J. Exp. Med. 1983; 158: 1
  • Glazier A., Tutschka P. J., Farmer E. Studies on the immunobiology of syngeneic and autologous graft-vs.-host disease in cyclosporine-treated rats. Transplant. Proc 1983; 15: 3035
  • Gobin S. J.P., Paine A. J. Effects of 2-acetyl-4-tetrahydroxybutyl imidazole (THI) on the thymus of rats. Thymus 1992; 20: 17
  • Gobin S. J. P., Phillips J. A. Immunosuppressive effects of 2-acetyl-4-tetrahydroxybutyl imidazole (THI) in the rat. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 1991; 85: 335
  • Gorski J. R., Muzi G., Weber L. W., Pereira D. W., Iatropoulos M J., Rozman K. Elevated plasma corticosterone levels and histopathology of the adrenals and thymuses in 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin-treated rats. Toxicology 1988; 53: 19
  • Greenlee W. F., Dold K. M., Irons R. D., Osborne R. Evidence for direct action of 2.3.7,8-tetrachloro-dibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) on thymic epithelium. Toxicol Appl. Pharmacol. 1985; 79: 112
  • Greenlee W. F., Osborne R., Dold K. M. Altered regulation of epidermal cell proliferation and differentiation by 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). Rev. Biochem. Toxicol. 1987; 8: 1
  • Gupta B. N., Vos J. G., Moore J. A., Zinkl J. G., Bullock B. C. Pathologic effects of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in laboratory animals. Environ. Health Perspect. 1973; 5: 125
  • Hadden J. W. Thymic endocrinology. Int. J. Immunopharmacol. 1992; 14: 345
  • Han Y. C., Lin T.-L., Pruett S. B. Thymic atrophy caused by ethanol in a mouse model for binge drinking: involvement of endogenous glucocorticoids. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1993; 123: 16
  • Hanson C. D., Smialowicz R. J. Evaluation of the effect of low-level 2,3,7,8-tetrachloro-dibenzo-p-dioxin exposure on cell-mediated immunity. Toxicology 1994; 88: 213
  • Hattori A., Kunz H. W., Gill T. J., III, Shinozuka H. Thymic and lymphoid changes and serum immunoglobulin abnormalities in mice receiving cyclosporine. Am. J. Pathol. 1987; 128: 111
  • Haynes B. F. The human thymic microenvironment. Adv. Immunol. 1984; 36: 87
  • Heeg K., Bendigs S., Häcker G., Wagner H. Cyclosporin A prevents the generation of single positive mature T cells in newborn mice. Thymus 1989; 14: 151
  • Hengartner H., Odermatt B., Schneider R., Schreyer VI., Wälle G., McDonald H. R., Zinkernagel R. M. Deletion of self-reactive T cells before entry into the thymus medulla. Nature 1988; 336: 388
  • Hess A. D., Horwitz L., Beschorner W. E., Santos G. W. Development of graft-vs.-host disease-like syndrome in cyclosporine-treated rats after syngeneic bone marrow transplantation. I. Development of cytotoxic T lymphocytes with apparent polyclonal anti-Ia specificity, including autoreactivity. J. Exp. Med. 1985; 161: 718
  • Hess A. D., Jones R. J., Morris L. E., Noga S. J., Vogelsang G. B., Santos G. W. Autologous graft-vs.-host disease: a novel approach for antitumor immunotherapy. Hum. Immunol. 1992; 34: 219
  • Hess A. D., Jones R. C., Santos G. W. Autologous graft-vs-host disease: mechanisms and potential therapeutic effect. Bone Marrow Transplant 1993; 12: (Suppl. 3), S65
  • Hess A. D., Fischer A. C., Horwitz L., Bright E. C., Laulis M. K. Characterization of peripheral auto-regulatory mechanisms that prevent development of cyclosporin-induced syngeneic graft-vs.-host disease. J. Immunol. 1994; 153: 400
  • Hinsdill R. D., Couch D. L., Speirs R. S. Immunosuppression in mice induced by dioxin (TCDD) in feed. J. Environ. Pathol. Toxicol. 1980; 4: 401
  • Hiramine C., Hojo K., Matsumoto H. Abnormal distribution of T cell subsets in the thymus of cyclosporin A (CsA)-treated mice. Thymus 1988; 11: 243
  • Hiramine C., Hojo K., Matsumoto H., Koseto M., Itoh M. Differential effect of cyclosporinein vivo on the distribution of T cell subsets in the thymus, spleen, and lymph nodes. Transplantation 1989; 47: 499
  • Hiramine C., Hojo K., Koseto M., Nakagawa T., Mukasa A. Establishment of a murine thymic epithelial cell line capable of inducing both thymic nurse cell formation and thymocyte apoptosis. Lab. Invest. 1990; 62: 41
  • Hirokawa K., Utsuyama M., Kasai M., Konno A., Kurashima C., Moriizumi E. Age-related hyperplasia of the thymus and T-cell system of the Buffalo rat: immunological and immunohistochemi-cal studies. Virch. Arch. B Cell Pathol. 1990; 59: 38
  • Hoefsmit E. C. M., Duijvestijn A. M., Kamperdijk E. W. A. Relation between Langerhans cells, veiled cells, and interdigitating cells. Immunobiology 1982; 161: 255
  • Holladay S. D., Lindstrom P., Blaylock B. L., Comment C. E., Germolec D. R., Heindell J. J., Luster M. I. Perinatal thymocyte antigen expression and postnatal immune development altered by gestional exposure to tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). Teratology 1991; 44: 385
  • Holladay S. D., Blaylock B. L., Comment C. E., Heindel J. J., Luster M. I. Fetal thymic atrophy after exposure to T-2 toxin: selectivity for lymphoid progenitor cells. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1993; 121: 8
  • Holländer G. A., Wang B., Nichoglannopoulou A., Platenburg P. P., Van Ewijk W., Burakoff S. J., Gutierrez-Ramos J.-C, Terhorst C. Developmental control point in induction of thymic cortex regulated by a subpopulation of prothymocytes. Nature 1995; 373: 350
  • Holsapple M. P., Morris D. L., Wood S. C., Snyder N. K. 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin-induced changes in immunocompetence: possible mechanisms. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 1991; 31: 73
  • Holsapple M. P., Snyder N. K., Wood S. C., Morris D. L. A review of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin-induced changes in immunocompetence: 1991 update. Toxicology 1991; 69: 219
  • Hoshino T. Electron microscopic studies of the epithelial reticular cells of the mouse thymus. Z Zell-forsch. 1963; 59: 513
  • Houben G. F., Van Den Berg EL, Kiujpers M. J. M., Lam B. W., Van Loveren H., Seinen W., Penninks A. H. Effects of the color additive caramel color III and 2-acetyl-4(5)-tetrahydroxybutylimidazole (THI) on the immune system of rats. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1992; 113: 43
  • House R. V., Lauer L. D., Murray M. J., Thomas P. T., Ehrlich J. P., Burleson G. R., Dean J. H. Examination of immune parameters and host resistance mechanisms in B6C3F1 mice following adult exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1990; 31: 203
  • Hsiao L., Takahashi K., Takeya M., Arao T. Differentiation and maturation of macrophages into interdigitating cells and their multicellular complex formation in the fetal and postnatal rat thymus. Thymus 1991; 17: 219
  • Hudson L. G., Toscano W. A., Greenlee W. F. Regulation of epidermal growth factor binding in a human keratinocyte cell line by 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1985; 77: 251
  • Huesmann M., Scott B., Kisielow P., Von Boehmer H. Kinetics and efficacy of positive selection in the thymus of normal and T cell receptor transgenic mice. Cell 1991; 66: 533
  • Hugo P., Kappler J. W., Marrack P. C. Positive selection of TcR αβ thymocytes: is cortical thymic epithelium an obligatory participant in the presentation of major histocompatibility complex protein. Immunol. Rev. 1993; 135: 133
  • Hugo P., Kappler J. W., McCormack J. E., Marrack P. Fibroblasts can induce thymocyte positive selection. in vivo, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 1993; 90: 10335
  • Hugo P., Kappler J. W., Godfrey D. I., Marrack P. C. Thymic epithelial cell lines that mediate positive selection can also induce thymocyte clonal deletion. J. Immunol. 1994; 152: 1022
  • Hwang W. S., Ho T. Y., Luk S. C., Simon G. T. Ultrastructure of the rat thymus. A transmission, scanning electron microscope, and morphometric study. Lab. Invest. 1974; 31: 473
  • Iwata M., Hanaoka S., Sato K. Rescue of thymocytes and T cell hybridomas from glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis by stimulation via the T cell receptor/CD3 complex: a possiblein vitro model for positive selection of the T cell repertoire. Eur. J. Immunol. 1991; 21: 643
  • Izon D. J., Boyd R. L. The cytoarchitecture of the human thymus detected by monoclonal antibodies. Hum. Immunol. 1990; 27: 16
  • Janossy G., Bofill M., Trejdosiewicz L. K., Willcox H. N. A., Chilosi M. Cellular differentiation of lymphoid subpopulations and their microenvironments in the human thymus in the human thymus. Curr. Top. Pathol 1986; 75: 89
  • Jenkins M. K., Schwartz R. H., Pardoll D. M. Effects of cyclosporine A on T cell development and clonal deletion. Science 1988; 241: 1655
  • Jenkinson E. J., Kingston R., Smith C. A., Williams G. T., Owen J. J. T. Antigen-induced apoptosis in developing T cells: a mechanism for negative selection of the T cell receptor repertoire. Eur. J. Immunol. 1989; 19: 2175
  • Jondal M., Okret S., McConkey D. Killing of immature CD4+CD8+ thymocytesin vivo by anti-CD3 or 5′-(N-ethyl)-carboxamido-adenosine is blocked by glucocorticoid receptor antagonist RU-486. Eur. J. Immunol. 1993; 23: 1246
  • Jones R. J., Hess A. D., Mann R. B., Piantadosi S., Vogelsang G. B., Farmer E. R., Geller R. B., Santos G. W. Induction of graft-vs.-host disease after autologous bone marrow transplantation. Lancet 1989; 1: 754
  • Kahan B. D. Cyclosporine. N. Engl. J. Med. 1989; 321: 1725
  • Kampinga J., Kroese F. G. M., Duijvestijn A. M., Murawska M. B., Pol G. H., Nieuwenhuis P. The rat thymus microenvironment: subsets of thymic epithelial cells defined by monoclonal antibodies. Transplant. Proc. 1987; 19: 3171
  • Kampinga J., Berges S., Boyd R. L., Brekelmans P., Colic M., Van Ewijk W., Kendall M. D., Ladyman H., Nieuwenhuis P., Ritter M. A., Schuurman H.-J., Tournefier A. Thymic epithelial antibodies: immunohistological analysis and introduction of nomenclature. Summary of the Epithelium Workshop held at the 2nd Workshop: The Thymus. Histophysiology and Dynamics in the Immune System. Thymus 1989; 13: 165
  • Kanariou M., Huby R., Ladyman H., Colic M., Sivolapenko G., Lampert I., Ritter M. Immunosuppression with cyclosporin A alters the thymic microenvironment. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 1989; 78: 263
  • Kaneshima H., Ito M., Asai J., Taguchi O., Hiai H. Thymic epithelial reticular cell subpopulations in mice defined by monoclonal antibodies. Lab. Invest. 1987; 56: 372
  • Kappler J., Roehm N., Marrack P. T cell tolerance by clonal elimination in the thymus. Cell 1987; 49: 273
  • Kendall M. D. The cells of the thymus. The Thymus Gland, M. D. Kendall. Academic Press, London 1981; 63
  • Kendall M. D. Functional anatomy of the thymic microenvironment. J. Anat. 1991; 177: 1
  • Kendall M. D., Schuurman H.-J., Fenton J., Broekhuizen R., Kampinga J. Implantation of cultured thymic fragments in congenitally athymic (nude) rat. Ultrastructural characteristics of the developing microenvironment. Cell Tissue Res. 1988; 254: 283
  • Kendall M. D., Fitzpatrick F. T. A., Greenstein B. D., Khoylou F., Safieh B., Hamblin A. Reversal of aging changes in the thymus of rats by chemical or surgical castration. Cell Tissue Res. 1990; 261: 555
  • Kerkvliet N. I. Immunotoxicology of dioxins and related chemicals. Dioxins and Health, A. Schecter. Plenum Press, New York/London 1994; 199
  • Kerkvliet N. I., Brauner J. A. Flow cytometric analysis of lymphocyte subpopulations in the spleen and thymus of mice exposed to an acute immunosuppressive dose of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). Environ. Res. 1990; 52: 146
  • Kerkvliet N. I., Steppan L. B., Brauner J. A., Deyo J. A., Henderson M. C., Tomar R. S., Buhler D. R. Influence of theAh locus on the humoral immunotoxicity of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin: evidence for,Ah-receptor-dependent andAh-receptor-independent mechanisms of immunosuppression. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1990; 105: 26
  • Kirberg J., Swat W., Rocha B., Kisielow P., Von Boehmer H. Induction of tolerance in immature and mature T cells. Transplant. Proc. 1993; 25: 279
  • Knutson J. C., Poland A. 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin: failure to demonstrate toxicity in twenty-three cultured cell types. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1980; 54: 377
  • Kociba R. J., Keeler P. A., Park C. N., Gehring P. J. 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD): results of a 13-week oral toxicity study in rats. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1976; 35: 553
  • Kosugi A., Sharrow S. O., Shearer G. M. Effect of cyclosporin A on lymphopoiesis. I. Absence of mature T cells in thymus and periphery of bone marrow transplanted mice treated with cyclosporin A. J. Immunol. 1989; 142: 3026
  • Kosugi A., Zuniga-Pflucker J. C., Sharrow S. O., Kruisbeek A. M., Shearer G. M. Effect of cyclosporin A on lymphopoiesis. II. Developmental defects of immature and mature thymocytes in fetal thymus organ cultures treated with cyclosporin A. J. Immunol. 1989; 143: 3134
  • Krajnc E. I., Wester P. W., Loeber J. G., Van Leeuwen F. X. R., Vos J. G., Vaessen H. A. M. G., Van Der Heyden C. A. Toxicity ofbis(tri-n-butyltin)oxide in the rat. I. Short-term effects on general parameters and on the endocrine and lymphoid systems. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1984; 75: 363
  • Kremer J., Lai Z.-W., Esser C. Evidence for the promotion of positive selection of thymocytes by Ah receptor agonist 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. Eur. J. Pharmacol, Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol. Section 1995; 293: 413
  • Kruisbeek A. M. Development of αβ T cells. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 1993; 5: 227
  • Kuper C. F., Beems R. B., Bruijntjes J. P., Schuurman H.-J., Vos J. G. Normal development, growth, and aging of the thymus. Pathobiology of the Aging Rat, U. Mohr, D. L. Dungworth, C. C. Capen. ILSI Press, Washington 1992; 1
  • Kurl R. N., Abraham M., Olnes M. J. Early effects of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) on rat thymocytes. in vitro, Toxicology 1993; 77: 103
  • Kyewski B. A. Thymic nurse cells: possible sites of T-cell selection. Immunol. Today 1986; 7: 374
  • Kyewski B. A. Seeding of thymic microenvironments defined by distinct thymocyte-stromal cell interactions is developmentally controlled. J. Exp. Med. 1987; 166: 520
  • Kyewski B. A., Kaplan H. S. Lymphoepithelial interactions in the mouse thymus: phenotypic and kinetic studies on thymic nurse cells. J. Immunol. 1982; 128: 2287
  • Kyewksi B. A., Fathman C. G., Kaplan H. S. Intrathymic presentation of circulating non-major histocompatibility complex antigens. Nature 1984; 308: 196
  • Kyewski B. A., Fathman C. G., Rouse R. V. Intrathymic presentation of circulating non-MHC antigens by medullary dendritic cells. An antigen-dependent microenvironment for T cell differentiation. J. Exp. Med. 1986; 163: 231
  • Lai Z.-W., Kremer J., Gleichmann E., Esser C. 3,3′,4,4′-Tetrachlorobiphenyl inhibits proliferation of immature thymocytes in fetal thymus organ culture. Scand. J. Immunol. 1994; 39: 480
  • Lampert I. A., Ritter M. A. The origin of diverse epithelial cells of the thymus: is there a common stem cell. The Microenvironment of the Human Thymus, Thymus Update, M. D. Kendall, M. A. Ritter. Harwood Academic Publishers, ChurSwitzerland 1988; 1: 5
  • Landers J. P., Bunce N. J. TheAh receptor and the mechanism of dioxin toxicity. Biochem. J. 1991; 276: 273
  • Lannes Vieira J., Meireles De Souza L. R., Savino W. Conceptual aspects of the thymic microenvironment. Immunol. Today 1994; 15: 192
  • Laster A. J., Itoh T., Palker T. J., Haynes B. F. The human thymic microenvironment: thymic epithelium contains specific keratins associated with early and late stages of epidermal keratinocyte maturation. Differentiation 1986; 31: 67
  • Lawrence B. P., Leid M., Kerkvliet N. I. Distribution and behavior of theAh receptor in murine T lymphocytes. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1996; 138: 275
  • Levin S., Semler D., Ruben Z. Effects of two weeks of feed restriction on some common toxicologic parameters in Sprague-Dawley rats. Toxicol. Pathol. 1993; 21: 1
  • Lo D., Sprent J. Identity of cells that imprint H-2-restricted T-cell specificity in the thymus. Nature 1986; 319: 672
  • Lobach D. F., Scearce R. M., Haynes B. F. The human thymic microenvironment. Phenotypic characterization of Hassall's bodies with the use of monoclonal antibodies. J. Immunol. 1985; 134: 250
  • Lorentz R. G., Allen P. M. Thymic cortical epithelial cells can present self-antigen. in vivo, Nature 1989; 337: 560
  • Luebke R. W., Copeland C. B., Diliberto J. J., Akubue P. I., Andrews D. L., Riddle M. M., Williams W. C., Birnbaum L. S. Assessment of host resistance toTrichinella spiralis in mice following preinfection exposure to 2,3,7,8-TCDD. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1994; 125: 7
  • Lund J., Kurl R. N., Poellinger L., Gustafsson J.-A. Cytosolic and nuclear binding proteins for 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in the rat thymus. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1982; 716: 16
  • Lundberg K. Dexamethasone and 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin can induce thymic atrophy by different mechanisms in mice. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. 1991; 178: 16
  • Lundberg K., Grönvik K.-O., Goldschmitt T. J., Klareskog L., Dencker L. 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) alters intrathymic T-cell development in mice. Chem. Biol. Interact. 1990; 74: 179
  • Lundberg K., Grönvik K.-O, Dencker L. 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) induced suppression of the local immune response. Int. J. Immunopharmacol. 1991; 13: 357
  • Luo H., Duguid W., Chen H., Maheu M., Wu J. The effect of rapamycin on T cell development in mice. Eur. J. Immunol. 1994; 24: 692
  • Luster M. I., Boorman G. A., Dean J. H., Harris M. W., Luebke R. W., Padarathsingh M. L., Moore J. A. Examination of bone marrow, immunologic parameters and host susceptibility following pre-and postnatal exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). Int. J. Immunopharmacol. 1980; 2: 301
  • Luster M I., Hayes H. T., Korach K., Tucker A. N., Dean J. H., Greenlee W. F., Boorman G. A. Estrogen immunosuppression is regulated through estrogenic responses in the thymus. J. Immunol. 1984; 133: 110
  • Luster M. I., Hong L. H., Boorman G. A., Clark G., Hayes H. T., Greenlee W. F., Dold K., Tucker A. N. Acute myelotoxic responses in mice exposed to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1985; 81: 156
  • Majoor G. D., Wodzig K. W. H., Van Breda Vriesman P. J. C. Cyclosporin-induced autoimmunity. The Thymus in Immunotoxicology, Thymus Update, M. D. Kendall, M. A. Ritter. Harwood Academic Publishers, ChurSwitzerland 1991; 4: 179
  • Marrack P., Kappler J. The T cell receptor. Science 1987; 238: 1073
  • Marrack P., Lo D., Brinster R., Palmiter R., Burkly L., Flavell R. H., Kappler J. The effect of thymus environment on T cell development and tolerance. Cell 1988; 53: 627
  • Marrack P., McCormack J., Kappler J. Presentation of antigen, foreign major histocompatibility complex proteins and self by thymus cortical epithelium. Nature 1989; 338: 503
  • Marrack P., Hugo P., McCormack J., Kappler J. Death and T cells. Immunol. Rev. 1993; 133: 119
  • Martens H., Goxe B., Geenen V. The thymic repertoire of neuroendocrine self-antigens: physiological implications in T-cell life and death. Immunol. Today 1996; 17: 312
  • Martin A., Alonso L., Gomez Del Moral M., Zapata A. G. Morphometrical changes in the rat thymic lymphoid cells after treatment with two different doses of estradiol benzoate. Histol. Histopathol. 1994; 9: 281
  • Martin A., Alonso L., Gomez Del Moral M., Zapata A. G. Ultrastructural changes in the adult rat thymus after estradiol benzoate treatment. Tissue Cell 1994; 26: 169
  • Martin-Fontecha A., Schuurman H.-J., Zapata A. In vitro effects of deoxyguanosine (dGuo) on thymic stromal cells. A discussion. Thymus 1994; 22: 167
  • Masuda A., Nishimoto Y., Morita T., Matsuyama M. Dexamethasone-induced changes in morphology and keratin organization of rat thymic epithelial cells in primary culture. Exp. Cell Res. 1985; 160: 343
  • Matsuhashi N., Kawase Y., Suzuki G. Effects of cyclosporine A on thymocyte differentiation in fetal thymus organ culture. Cell. Immunol. 1989; 123: 307
  • Matsumoto K., Sekita K., Ochiai T., Takagi A., Takada K., Furuya T., Kurokawa Y., Saito Y., Teshima R., Suzuki K., Sawada J.-I, Terao T., Tobe M. Evaluation of immunotoxicity testings using azathioprine-treated rats: the International Collaborative Immunotoxicity Study (Azathioprine). Eisei Shikenjo Hokoku 1990; 180: 34
  • Matzinger P., Guerder S. Does T-cell tolerance require a dedicated antigen-presenting cell. Nature 1989; 338: 74
  • McCarthy S. A., Cacchione R. N., Mainwaring M. S., Cairns J. S. The effects of immunosuppressive drugs on the regulation of activation-induced apoptotic cell death in thymocytes. Transplantation 1992; 54: 543
  • McConkey D. J., Orrenius S. 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin kills glucocorticoid-sensitive thymocytes. in vivo, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. 1989; 160: 1003
  • McConkey D. J., Hartzell P., Duddy S. K., Hakansson H., Orrenius S. 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin kills immature thymocytes by Ca2+-mediated endonuclease activation. Science 1988; 242: 256
  • McConnell E. E., Moore J. A., Haseman J. K., Harris M. W. The comparative toxicity of chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins in mice and guinea pigs. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1978; 44: 335
  • McDonald H. R., Lees R. K. Programmed death of autoreactive thymocytes. Nature 1990; 343: 642
  • McDuffie M., Born W., Marrack P., Kappler J. The role of the T-cell receptor in thymocyte maturation: effectsin vivo of anti-receptor antibody. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 1986; 83: 8728
  • McFarland E. J., Scearce R. M., Haynes B. F. The human thymic microenvironment: cortical thymic epithelium is an antigenically distinct region of the thymic microenvironment. J. Immunol. 1984; 133: 1241
  • Meireles De Souza L. R., Savino W. Modulation of cytokeratin expression in the hamster thymus: evidence for a plasticity in the thymic epithelium. Dev. Immunol. 1993; 3: 137
  • Meireles De Souza L. R., Trajano V., Savino W. Is there an interspecies diversity of the thymic microenvironment. Dew Immunol. 1993; 3: 123
  • Mejino J. L. V., Lee M., Hamilton B. L., Rosse C. The role of hematogenous and intrinsic precursor cells in lymphocyte production in murine bone marrow and thymus. Am. J. Anat. 1991; 192: 232
  • Merkenschlager M. Tracing interactions of thymocytes with individual stromal cell partners. Eur. J. Immunol. 1996; 26: 892
  • Merkenschlager M., Benoist C., Mathis D. Evidence for a single-niche model of positive selection. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 1994; 91: 11694
  • Milicevic N. M., Milicevic Z., Colic M. Macrophages in the rat thymus after cyclosporin treatment. Histochemical, enzymehistochemical and immunohistochemical study. Virchows Arch. B Cell Pathol. 1989; 57: 237
  • Milicevic Z., Colic M., Milicevic N. M. Organization of thymic epithelial cells in cyclosporin-treated rats. Light microscopic immunohistochemical study. Thymus 1991; 17: 75
  • Milicevic Z., Zivanovic V., Todorovic J., Colic M., Kamperdijk E. W. A., Hoefsmit E. C. M., Milicevic N. M. Differential effect of cyclosporin application on epithelial cells of the rat thymus. Immunohistochemical study. J. Comp. Pathol 1992; 106: 25
  • Miller K., Scott M. P. Immunological consequences of dioctyltin dichloride (DOTC)-induced thymic injury. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1985; 78: 395
  • Miller K., Scott M. P., Foster J. R. Sequential effects of dioctyltin dichloride on the rat thymus. Arch. Toxicol 1982; 328, Suppl. 5
  • Miller K., Scott M. P., Foster J. R. Thymic involution in rats given diets containing dioctyltin dichloride. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 1984; 30: 62
  • Moll U. M., Lane B. L., Robert F., Geenen V., Legros J.-J. The neuroendocrine thymus. Abundant occurrence of oxytocin-, vasopressin-, and neurophysin-like peptides in epithelial cells. Histochemistry 1988; 89: 385
  • Morris D. L., Snyder N. K., Gokani V., Blair R. E., Holsapple M. P. Enhanced suppression of humoral immunity in DBA/2 mice following subchronic exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1992; 112: 128
  • Morselt A. F. W., Leene W., De Groot C., Kipp J. B. A., Evers M., Roelofsen A. M., Bosch K. S. Differences in immunological susceptibility to cadmium toxicity between two rat strains as demonstrated with cell biological methods. Effect of cadmium on DNA synthesis of thymus lymphocytes. Toxicology 1988; 48: 127
  • Müller K.-P., Kyewski B. A. T cell receptor targeting to thymic cortical epithelial cellsin vivo induces survival, activation and differentiation of immature thymocytes. Eur. J. Immunol. 1993; 23: 1661
  • Müller K.-P., Schumacher J., Kyewski B. A. Half-life of antigen-major histocompatibility complex class II complexesin vivo: intra- and interorgan variations. Eur. J. Immunol. 1993; 23: 3203
  • Murphy K. M., Heimberger A. B., Loh D. Y. Induction by antigen of intrathymic apoptosis of CD4+CD8+TCR10 thymocytes. in vivo, Science 1990; 250: 1720
  • Nabarra B., Andrianarison I. Ultrastructural studies of thymic reticulum. I. Epithelial component. Thymus 1987; 9: 95
  • Nabarra B., Andrianarison I. Ultrastructural studies of mouse thymic reticulum. II. Non-epithelial component. Thymus 1991; 17: 39
  • Nabarra B., Papiernik M. Effects of cytokines on thymic hematopoietic precursors. Phenotypic and electron-microscopic study. Cell Tissue Res. 1991; 264: 369
  • Nagarkatti P. S., Sweeney G. D., Gauldie J., Clark D. A. Sensitivity to suppression of cytotoxic T cell generation by 2,3,7,8-tetraehlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) is dependent on theAh genotype of the murine host. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1984; 72: 169
  • Nakashima M., Mori K., Maeda K., Kishi H., Hirata K., Kawabuchi M., Watanabe T. Selective elimination of double-positive immature thymocytes by a thymic epithelial cell line. Eur. J. Immunol. 1990; 20: 47
  • Nebert D. W. TheAh locus: genetic differences in toxicity, cancer, mutation, and birth defects. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 1989; 20: 153
  • Nicolas J. F., Savino W., Reano A., Viac J., Brochier J., Dardenne M. Heterogeneity of thymic epithelial cell (TEC) keratins. Immunohistochemical and biochemical evidence for a subset of highly differentiated TEC in the mouse. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 1985; 33: 687
  • Nicolas J. F., Reano A., Kaiserlian D., Thivolet J. Epithelial cell heterogeneity in the mammalian thymus: monoclonal antibody to high molecular weight keratins exclusively binds to Hassall's corpuscles. Histochem. J. 1989; 21: 357
  • Nikolic-Zugic J. Phenotypic and functional stages in the intrathymic development of αβ T cells. Immunol. Today 1991; 12: 65
  • Nossal G. J. V. Negative selection of lymphocytes. Cell 1994; 76: 229
  • Ohashi P. S., Pircher H., Bürki K., Zinkernagel R. M., Hengartner H. Distinct sequence of negative or positive selection implied by thymocyte T-cell receptor densities. Nature 1990; 346: 861
  • Okey A. B., Riddick D. S., Harper P. A. The Ah receptor: mediator of the toxicity of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) and related compounds. Toxicol. Lett. 1994; 70: 1
  • O'Neill H. C. The lineage relationship of dendritic cells with other haematopoietic cells. Scand. J. Immunol. 1994; 39: 513
  • Osborne R., Greenlee W. F. 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) enhances terminal differentiation of cultured human epidermal cells. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1985; 77: 434
  • Oughton J. A., Pereira C. B., De Krey G., Collier J. M., Frank A. A., Kerkvliet N. I. Phenotypic analysis of spleen, thymus, and peripheral blood cells in aged C57B1/6. mice following long-term exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. Fund. Appl. Toxicol. 1995; 25: 60
  • Palmer D. B., Viney J. L., Ritter M. A., Hayday A. C., Owen M. J. Expression of the αβ T-cell receptor is necessary for the generation of the thymic medulla. Dev. Immunol. 1993; 3: 175
  • Parfrey N. A., Prud'homme G. J. Patterns of MHC antigenic modulation in cyclosporine-induced autoimmunity. Implications for pathogenesis. Am. J. Pathol. 1990; 136: 479
  • Pawlikowski M., Stepien H., Mroz-Wasilewska, Pawlikowska A. Effects of diazepam on cell proliferation in cerebral cortex, anterior pituitary and thymus of developing rats. Life Sci. 1987; 40: 1131
  • Pawlowski T. J., Staertz U. D. Thymic education — T cells do it for themselves. Immunol. Today 1994; 15: 205
  • Pawlowski T., Elliott J. D., Loh D. Y., Staerz U. D. Positive selection of T lymphocytes on fibroblasts. Nature 1993; 364: 642
  • Penit C. Positive selection is an early event in thymocyte differentiation: high TCR expression by cycling immature thymocytes precedes final maturation by several days. Int. Immunol. 1990; 2: 629
  • Penninger J., Rieker T., Romani N., Klima J., Salvenmoser W., Dietrich H., Stössel H., Wick G. Ultrastructural analysis of thymic nurse cell epithelium. Eur. J. Immunol. 1994; 24: 222
  • Penninks A. H., Kuper F., Spit B. J., Seinen W. On the mechanism of dialkyltin-induced thymus involution. Immunopharmacology 1985; 10: 1
  • Penninks A. H., Hilgers L., Seinen W. The absorption, tissue distribution and excretion of di-n-octyltin dichloride in rats. Toxicology 1987; 44: 107
  • Penninks A. H., Snoeij N. J., Pieters R. H. H., Seinen W. Effect of organotin compounds on lymphoid organs and lymphoid functions: an overview. Immunotoxicity of Metals and Immunotoxicology, A. D. Dayan. Plenum Press, New York 1990; 191
  • Penninks A. H., Pieters R. H. H., Snoeij N. J., Seinen W. Organotin-induced thymus atrophy. The Thymus in Immunotoxicology, Thymus Update, M. D. Kendall, M. A. Ritter. Harwood Academic Publishers, ChurSwitzerland 1991; 4: 57
  • Person P. L., Korngold R., Teuscher C. Pertussis toxin-induced lymphocytosis is associated with alterations in thymocyte subpopulations. J. Immunol. 1992; 148
  • Peters J. H., Gieseler R., Thiele B., Steinbach F. Dendritic cells: from ontogenic orphans to myelomonocytic descendants. Immunol. Today 1996; 17: 273
  • Peterson R. E., Seefeld M. D., Christian B. J., Potter C. L., Kelling C. K., Keesey R. E. The wasting syndrome in 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin toxicity: basic features and their interpretation. Biological Mechanisms ofDioxin Action, A. Poland, R. Kimbrough. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York 1984; 291, Banbury Report 18
  • Picker L. J., Siegelman M. H. Lymphoid tissues and organs. Fundamental Immunology, W. E. Paul. Raven Press, New York 1993
  • Pieters R. H. H., Kampinga J., Snoeij N. J., Bol-Schoenmakers M., Lam A. W., Penninks A. H., Seinen W. An immunohistochemical study of dibutyltin-induced thymus atrophy. Arch. Toxicol. 1989; 175, Suppl. 13
  • Pieters R. H. H., Kampinga J., Bol-Schoenmakers M., Lam B. W., Penninks A. H., Seinen W. Organotin-induced thymus atrophy concerns the OX-44+ immature thymocytes. Relation to interaction between early thymocytes and thymic epithelial cells. Thymus 1989; 14: 79
  • Pieters R. H. H., Bol M., Lam B. W., Seinen W., Penninks A. H. The organotin-induced thymus atrophy, characterized by depletion of CD4+CD8+ thymocytes, is preceded by a reduction of the immature CD4−CD8+TcRαβ−/lowCD2high thymoblast subset. Immunology 1992; 76: 203
  • Pieters R. H. H., Bol M., Lam B. W., Seinen W., Bloksma N., Penninks A. H. Recovery of chemically induced thymus atrophy starts with CD4−CD8− CD2highTcRαβ−/low thymocytes and results in an increased formation of CD4−CD8−TcRαβhigh thymocytes. Immunology 1993; 78: 616
  • Pieters R. H. H., Boi M., Penninks A. H. Immunotoxic organotins as possible model compounds in studying apoptosis and thymocyte differentiation. Toxicology 1994; 91: 189
  • Pieters R. H. H., Bol M., Ariëns T., Punt P., Seinen W., Bloksma N., Penninks A. H. Selective inhibition of immature CD4−CD8+ thymocyte proliferation, but not differentiation, by the thymus atrophy-inducing compound di-n-butyltin dichloride. Immunology 1994; 81: 261
  • Pieters R. H. H., Albers R., Bleumink R., Snoeij N. J., Itoh Tsunetoshi, Seinen W., Penninks A. H. The thymus atrophy-inducing organotin compound DBTC inhibits the binding of thymocytes to thymic epithelial cells. Int. J. Immunopharmacol. 1995; 17: 329
  • Pircher H., Müller K.-P., Kyewski B. A., Hengartner H. Thymocytes can tolerize thymocytes by clonal deletion. in vitro. Int. Immunol. 1992; 4: 1065
  • Pircher H., Brduscha K., Steinhoff U., Kasai M., Mizuochi T., Zinkernagel R. M., Hengartner H., Kyewski B. A., Müller K.-P. Tolerance induction by clonal deletion of CD4+8+ thymocytesin vitro does not require dedicated antigen-presenting cells. Eur. J. Immunol. 1993; 23: 669
  • Poland A., Glover E. 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin: segregation of toxicity with theAh locus. Mol. Pharmacol. 1980; 17: 86
  • Poland A., Knutson J. C. 2.3.7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin and related halogenated aromatic hydrocarbons: examination of the mechanism of toxicity. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 1982; 22: 517
  • Prud'homme G. J., Parfrey N. A., Vanier L. E. Cyclosporine-induced autoimmunity and immune hyperreactivity. Autoimmunity 1991; 9: 345
  • Prud'homme G. J., Sanders R., Parfrey N. A., Ste-Croix H. T-cell maturation and clonal deletion in cyclosporine-induced autoimmunity. J. Autoimmunity 1991; 4: 357
  • Pruett S. B., Ensley D. K., Crittenden P. L. The role of chemical-induced stress responses in immunosuppression: a review of quantitative associations and cause-effect relationships between chemical-induced stress responses and immunosuppression. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health. 1993; 39: 163
  • Pugh-Humphreys R. G. P., Ross C. S. K., Thomson A. W. The influence of FK-506 on the thymus: an immunophenotypic and structural analysis. Immunology 1990; 70: 398
  • Puhvel S. M., Sakamoto M. Response of murine epidermal keratinocyte cultures to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD): comparison of haired and hairless genotypes. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1987; 89: 29
  • Raffray M., Cohen G. M. Bis(tri-n-butyltin)oxide induces programmed cell death (apoptosis) in immature rat thymocytes. Arch. Toxicol. 1991; 65: 135
  • Raffray M., Cohen G. M. Thymocyte apoptosis as a mechanism for tributyltin-induced thymic atrophy. in vivo, Arch. Toxicol. 1993; 67: 231
  • Raffray M., McCarthy D., Snowden R. T., Cohen G. M. Apoptosis as a mechanism of tributyltin cytotoxicity to thymocytes: relationship of apoptotic markers to biochemical and cellular effects. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1993; 119: 122
  • Reiser H., Schneeberger E. E. The costimulatory molecule B7 is expressed in the medullary region of the murine thymus. Immunology 1994; 81: 532
  • Rhile M. J., Nagarkatti M., Nagarkatti P. S. Role of Fas apoptosis and MHC genes in 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD)-induced immunotoxicity of T cells. Toxicology 1996; 110: 153
  • Ritter M. A., Boyd R. L. Development in the thymus: it takes two to tango. Immunol. Today 1993; 14: 462
  • Ritter M. A., Crispe I. N. The Thymus, D. Male. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1992
  • Ritter M. A., Ladyman H. M. The effects of cyclosporin on the thymic microenvironment and T cell development. The Thymus in Immunotoxicology, Thymus Update, M. D. Kendall, M. A. Ritter. Harwood Academic Publishers, ChurSwitzerland 1991; 4: 157
  • Ritter M. A., Sauvage C. A., Cotmore S. F. The human thymus microenvironment:in vivo identification of thymic nurse cells and other antigenically distinct subpopulations of epithelial cells. Immunology 1981; 44: 439
  • Robbana-Barnat S., Lafarge-Frayssinet C., Cohen H., Neish G. A., Frayssinet C. Immunosuppressive properties of deoxynivalenol. Toxicology 1988; 48: 155
  • Röpke C., Van Soest P., Platenburg P. P., Van Ewijk W. A common stem cell for murine cortical and medullary thymic epithelial cells. Dev. Immunol. 1995; 4: 149
  • Rothenberg E. V. Death and transfiguration of cortical thymocytes: a reconsideration. Immunol. Today 1990; 11: 116
  • Rouse R. V., Bolin L. M., Bender J. R., Kyewski B. A. Monoclonal antibodies reactive with subsets of mouse and human thymic epithelial cells. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 1988; 36: 1511
  • Ryffel B. Cyclosporin binding proteins: identification, distribution, function and relation to FK binding proteins. Biochem. Pharmacol. 1993; 46: 1
  • Ryffel B., Deyssenroth H., Borel J. F. Cyclosporin A: effects on the mouse thymus. Agents Actions 1981; 11: 373
  • Ryffel B., Woerly G., Greiner B., Haendler B., Mihatsch M. J., Foxwell B. M. J. Distribution of the cyclosporine binding protein cyclophilin in human tissues. Immunology 1991; 72: 399
  • Sakaguchi S., Sakaguchi N. Thymus and autoimmunity: transplantation of the thymus from cyclosporin A-treated mice causes organ-specific autoimmune disease in athymic nude mice. J. Exp. Med. 1988; 167: 1479
  • Sakaguchi S., Sakaguchi N. Organ-specific autoimmune disease induced in mice by elimination of T cell subsets. V. Neonatal administration of cyclosporin A causes autoimmune disease. J. Immunol. 1989; 142: 471
  • Savion S., Itoh T., Hertogs H., Shoham J. Contact-mediated maturational effects of thymic stromal cells on murine thymocytes in culture. Immunology 1989; 67: 496
  • Savino W., Cirne-Lima E. O., Teixeira Soares J. F., Do Carmo Leite-De Moraes M., Ono I. P. C., Dardenne M. Hydrocortisone increases the numbers of KL1+ cells, a discrete thymic epithelial cell subset characterized by high-molecular-weight cyto-keratin expression. Endocrinology 1988; 123: 2557
  • Savino W., Do Carmo Leite-de Moraes M., Hontebeyrie-Joskowicz M., Dardenne M. Studies on the thymus in Chagas' disease.1. Changes in the thymic microenvironment in mice acutely infected with. Trypanosoma cruzi, Eur. J. Immunol. 1989; 19: 1727
  • Schmitt D., Zambruno G., Staquet M.-J., Dezutter-Dambuyant C., Ohrt C., Brochier J., Thivolet J. Antigenic thymus-epidermis relationships. Reactivity of a panel of anti-thymic cell monoclonal antibodies on human keratinocytes and Langerhans cells. Dermatologica 1987; 175: 109
  • Schreiber S. L. Chemistry and biology of the immunophilins and their immunosuppressive ligands. Science. 251–283
  • Schreiber S. L., Crabtree G. R. The mechanism of action of cyclosporin A and FK 506. Immunol. Today 1992; 13: 136
  • Schuurman H.-J. Biological functions of the thymic microenvironment. The Microenvironment of the Human Thymus, Thymus Update, M. D. Kendall, M. A. Ritter. Harwood Academic Publishers, ChurSwitzerland 1988; 1: 67
  • Schuurman H.-J., Kuper C. F. Pathology of the thymus: changes induced by xenobiotics and gene targeting. APMIS 1994; 103: 481
  • Schuurman H.-J., Van Loveren H., Rozing J., Van Dijk A., Loeber J. G., Vos J. G. Cyclosporin and the rat thymus. An immunohistochemical study. Thymus 1990; 16: 235
  • Schuurman H.-J., Krajnc-Franken M. A. M., Kuper C. F., Van Loveren H., Vos J. G. Immune system. Handbook of Toxicologic Pathology. Academic Press. 1991; 421
  • Schuurman H.-J., De Waal E. J., Van Loveren H., Vos J. G. The toxicity of dioxin to the thymus. The Thymus in Immunotoxicology, Thymus Update, M. D. Kendall, M. A. Ritter. Harwood Academic Publishers, ChurSwitzerland 1991; 4: 35
  • Schuurman H.-J., Van Loveren H., Loeber J. G., Van Dijk A., Rozing J., Vos J. G. Involution of the thymus medulla by cyclosporin. Lymphatic Tissues and In Vivo Immune Responses, B. A. Imhof, S. Berrih-Aknin, S. Ezine. Marcel Dekker, New York 1991; 569
  • Schuurman H.-J., Van Loveren H., Rozing J., Vos J. G. Chemicals trophic for the thymus: risk for immunodeficiency and autoimmunity. Int. J. Immunopharmacol. 1992; 14: 369
  • Schuurman H.-J., Hu H. Z., De Weger R. A., Clevers H. C. Thoughts on the thymus and the T-lymphocyte repertoire. Relevance to the tolerance of the immune response. Neth. J. Med. 1993; 43: 38
  • Schuurman H.-J., Kuper C. F., Vos J. G. Histopathology of the immune system as a tool assess immunotoxicity. Toxicology 1994; 86: 187
  • Scollay R. G., Butcher E. C., Weissman I. L. Thymus cell migration. Quantitative aspects of cellular traffic from the thymus to the periphery in mice. Eur. J. Immunol. 1980; 10: 210
  • Scollay R., Smith J., Stauffer V. Dynamics of early T cells: prothymocyte migration and proliferation in the adult mouse thymus. Immunol. Rev. 1986; 91: 129
  • Sebzda E., Wallace V. A., Mayer J., Yeung R. S. M., Mak T. W., Ohashi P. S. Positive and negative thymocyte selection induced by different concentrations of a single peptide. Science 1994; 263: 1615
  • Sei Y., Yoshimoto K., McLntyre T., Skolnick P., Arora P. K. Morphine-induced thymic hypoplasia is glucocorticoid-dependent. J. Immunol. 1991; 146: 194
  • Seinen W., Penninks A. Immune suppression as a consequence of a selective cytotoxic activity of certain organometallic compounds on thymus and thymus-dependent lymphocytes. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1979; 320: 499
  • Seinen W., Willems M. I. Toxicity of organotin compounds. I. Atrophy of thymus and thymus-dependent lymphoid tissue in rats fed with di-n-octyltindichloride. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1976; 35: 63
  • Seinen W., Vos J. G., Van Spanje I., Snoek M., Brands R., Hooykaas H. Toxicity of organotin compounds. II. Comparativein vivo andin vitro studies with various organotin and organolead compounds in different animal species with special emphasis on lymphocyte cytoxicity. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1977; 42: 197
  • Seinen W., Vos J. G., Van Krieken R., Penninks A., Brands R., Hooykaas H. Toxicity of organotin compounds. III. Suppression of thymus-dependent immunity in rats by di-n-butyltindichloride and di-n-octyltindichloride. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1977; 42: 213
  • Shevach E. M. The effects of cyclosporin A on the immune system. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 1985; 3: 397
  • Shi Y., Sahai B. M., Green D. R. Cyclosporin A inhibits activation-induced cell death in T-cell hybri-domas and thymocytes. Nature 1989; 339: 625
  • Shi Y., Bissonnette R. P., Parfrey N., Szaiay M., Kubo R. T., Green D. R. In vivo administration of monoclonal antibodies to the CD3 T cell receptor complex induces cell death (apoptosis) in immature thymocytes. J. Immunol. 1991; 146: 3340
  • Shinozawa T., Beschorner W. E., Hess A. D. The thymus and prolonged administration of cyclospo-rine. Irreversible immunopathologic changes associated with autologous pseudo-graft-vs.-host disease. Transplantation 1990; 50: 106
  • Shores E. W., Van Ewijk W., Singer A. Disorganization and restoration of thymic medullary epithelial cells in T cell receptor-negative SCID mice: evidence that receptor-bearing lymphocytes influence maturation of the thymic microenvironment. Eur. J. Immunol. 1991; 21: 1657
  • Shores E. W., Van Ewijk W., Singer A. Maturation of medullary thymic epithelium requires thymocytus expreasing fully assembled CD3-TCR complexes. Int. Immunol. 1995; 6: 1393
  • Shortman K., Wilson A., Van Ewijk W., Scollay R. Phenotype and localization of thymocytes expressing the homing receptor-associated antigen MEL-14: arguments for the view that most mature thymocytes are located in the medulla. J. Immunol. 1987; 138: 342
  • Siegel R. M., Yui K., Tenenholtz D. E., Kubo R., Greene M. I. Inhibition of T cell development in thymic organ culture: implications for the mechanism of action of cyclosporin A. Eur. J. Immunol. 1990; 20: 753
  • Sigal N. H., Dumont F. J. Cyclosporin A, FK-506, and rapamycin: pharmacologic probes of lymphocyte signal transduction. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 1992; 10: 519
  • Silk worth J. B., Antrim L., Sack G. Ah receptor mediated suppression of the antibody response in mice is primarily dependent on theAh phenotype of lymphoid tissues. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1986; 86: 380
  • Silverstone A. E., Frazier D. E., Fiore N. C., Soults J. A., Gasiewicz T. A. Dexamethasone, β-estradiol, and 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin elicit thymic atrophy through different cellular targets. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1994; 126: 248
  • Singh J. The ultrastructure of epithelial reticular cells. The Thymus Gland, M. D. Kendall. Academic Press, London 1981; 133
  • Smialowicz R. J., Riddle M. M., Rogers R. R., Rowe D. G., Luebke R. W., Fogelson L. D., Copeland C. B. Immunologic effects of perinatal exposure of rats to dioctyltin dichloride. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1988; 25: 403
  • Smialowicz R. J., Riddle M. M., Rogers R. R., Luebke R. W., Copeland C. B. Immunotoxicity of tributyltin oxide in rats exposed as adults or preweanlings. Toxicology 1989; 57: 97
  • Smialowicz R. J., Riddle M. M., Rogers R. R., Luebke R. W., Copeland C. B., Ernst G. G. Immune alterations in rats following subacute exposure to tributyltin oxide. Toxicology 1990; 64: 169
  • Smialowicz R. J., Luebke R. W., Riddle M. M. Assessment of the immunotoxic potential of the fungicide dinocap in mice. Toxicology 1992; 75: 235
  • Smialowicz R. J., Riddle M. M., Williams W. C., Diliberto J. J. Effects of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) on humoral immunity and lymphocyte subpopulations: differences between mice and rats. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1994; 124: 248
  • Smith C. A., Williams G. T., Kingston R., Jenkinson E. J., Owen J. J. T. Antibodies to CD3/T-cell receptor complex induce death by apoptosis in immature T cells in thymic cultures. Nature 1989; 337: 181
  • Snoeij N. J., Van Iersel A. A. W., Penninks A. H., Seinen W. Toxicity of triorganotin compounds: comparativein vivo studies with a series of trialkyltin compounds and triphenyltin chloride in male rats. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1985; 81: 274
  • Snoeij N. J., Van Iersel A. A. J., Penninks A. H., Seinen W. Triorganotin-induced cytotoxicity to rat thymus, bone marrow and red blood cells as determined by severalin vitro assays. Toxicology 1986; 39: 71
  • Snoeij N. J., Penninks A. H., Seinen W. Dibutyltin and tributyltin compounds induce thymus atrophy in rats due to a selective action on thymic lymphoblasts. Int. J. Immunopharmacol. 1988; 10: 891
  • Sorokin R., Kimura H., Schroder K., Wilson D. H., Wilson D. B. Cyclosporine-induced autoimmunity. Conditions for expressing disease, requirement for intact thymus, and potency estimates of autoimmune lymphocytes in drug-treated rats. J. Exp. Med. 1986; 164: 1615
  • Sprent J., Gao E.-K., Ron Y. T cell selection in the thymus. Immunol. Rev. 1988; 101: 173
  • Sprent J., Gao E.-K., Webb S. R. T cell reactivity to MHC molecules: immunity versus tolerance. Science 1990; 248: 1357
  • Stahlmann R., Chahoud I., Korte M., Thiel R., Van Loveren H., Vos J. G., Foerster M., Merker H.-J., Neubert D. Structural anomalies of thymus and other organs and impaired resistance toTrichinella spiralis infection in rats after prenatal exposure to aciclovir. The Thymus in Immunotoxicology, Thymus Update, M. D. Kendall, M. A. Ritter. Harwood Academic Publishers, ChurSwitzerland 1991; 4: 129
  • Stahlmann R., Korte M., Van Loveren H., Vos J. G., Thiel R., Neubert D. Abnormal thymus development and impaired function of the immune system in rats after prenatal exposure to aciclovir. Arch. Toxicol. 1992; 66: 551
  • Stahlmann R., Snyder P. W., Robinson P., Greenlee W. F. 2,3,7,8-Tetrachloro-dibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) induces terminal differentiation in human thymic epithelial cells. in vitro, Naunyn Schmiedeberg's Arch. Pharmacol. 1994; 349, Suppl., Abstr. 449
  • Steinman R. M. The dendritic cell system and its role in immunogenicity. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 1991; 9: 271
  • Stepien H., Pawlikowska A., Pawlikowski M. Effects of benzodiazepines on thymus cell proliferation. Thymus 1988; 12: 117
  • Sugimoto M., Nakanishi Y., Otokawa M., Uchida N., Yasuda T., Sato H., Sato Y. Effect ofBordetella pertussis leucocytosis (lymphocytosis)-promoting factor (LPF) on the physical lymphoepithelialcell association studied with the use of anin vitro model of mouse thymus. J. Immunol. 1983; 130: 2767
  • Sun X.-M., Dinsdale D., Snowden R. T., Cohen G. M., Skilleter D. N. Characterization of apoptosis in thymocytes isolated from dexamethasone-treated rats. Biochem. Pharmacol. 1992; 44: 2131
  • Surh C. D., Ernst B., Sprent J. Growth of epithelial cells in the thymic medulla is under the control of mature T cells. J. Exp. Med. 1992; 176: 611
  • Surh C. D., Sprent J. T-cell apoptosis detectedin situ during positive and negative selection in the thymus. Nature 1994; 21: 372
  • Takahama Y., Shores E. W., Singer A. Negative selection of precursor thymocytes before their differentiation into CD4+CD8+ cells. Science 1992; 258: 653
  • Takai K., Jojima K., Sakatoku J., Fukumoto T. Effects of FK506 on rat thymus: time-course analysis by immunoperoxidase technique and flow cytofluorometry. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 1990; 82: 445
  • Takai K., Tokuda N., Sawada T., Fujikura Y., Jojima K., Sakatoku J., Fukumoto T. Effects of FK 506 on rat thymic epithelial cells: immunohistochemical study. Thymus 1992; 19: 207
  • Takeuchi Y., Habu S., Okumura K., Suzuki G. Cyclosporin A and anti-Ia antibody cause a maturation defect of CD4+8− cells in organ-cultured fetal thymus. Immunology 1989; 66: 362
  • Takeuchi Y., Horiuchi T., Sugimoto T., Matsuda H., Yagita H., Okumura K. Effects of cyclosporin A on T-cell development in organ-cultured foetal thymus. Immunology 1990; 71: 158
  • Talbot D. C., Powles R. L., Sloane J. P., Rose J., Treleaven J., Aboud H., Helenglass G., Parikh P., Smith C., Rowley M., Cavanagh J., Milliken S., Hewetson M., Norton J. Cyclosporine-induced graft-vs.-host disease following autologous bone marrow transplantation in acute myeloid leukaemia. Bone Marrow Transplant 1990; 6: 17
  • Tanaka M., Shinohara K., Fukumoto T., Tanaka H., Kaneko T. Effect of cyclosporin A on rat thymus: time course analysis by immunoperoxidase technique and flow cytofluorometry. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 1988; 72: 216
  • Tanaka Y., Mamalaki C., Stockinger B., Kioussis D. In vitro negative selection of αβ T cell receptor transgenic thymocytes by conditionally immortalized thymic cortical epithelial cell lines and dendritic cells. Eur. J. Immunol. 1993; 23: 2614
  • Tao W., Teh S.-J., Melhado I., Jirik F., Korsmeyer S J., Teh H.-J. The T cell receptor repertoire of CD4−8+ thymocytes is altered by overexpression of theBCL-2 protooncogene in the thymus. J. Exp. Med. 1994; 179: 145
  • Teh H. S., Kisielow P., Scott B., Kishi H., Uematsu Y., Blüthmann H., Von Boehmer H. Thymic major histocompatibility complex antigens and the αβ T-cell receptor determine the CD4/CD8 phenotype of T cells. Nature 1988; 335: 229
  • Terstappen L. W. M. M., Huang S., Picker L. J. Flow cytometric assessment of human T-cell differentiation in thymus and bone marrow. Blood 1992; 79: 666
  • Thomson A. W., Pugh-Humphreys R. G. P. The antilymphocytic properties of FK-506 and its influence on the thymic microenvironment. The Thymus in Immunotoxicology, Thymus Update, M. D. Kendall, M. A. Ritter. Harwood Academic Publishers, ChurSwitzerland 1991; 4: 93
  • Thomson A. W., Whiting P. H., Simpson J. G. Cyclosporine: immunology, toxicity and pharmacology in experimental animals. Agents Actions 1984; 15: 306
  • Thomson A. W., Pugh-Humphreys R. G. P., Woo J. The influence of FK 506 on the thymus: implications of drug-induced injury to thymic epithelial cells. Transplant. Proc. 1991; 23: 947
  • Tomar R. S., Kerkvliet N. I. Reduced T-helper cell function in mice exposed to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). Toxicol. Lett. 1991; 57: 55
  • Toussaint-Demylle D., Scheiff J.-M., Haumont S. Thymic accessory cell complexesin vitro andin vivo: morphological study. Cell Tissue Res. 1991; 263: 293
  • Tucker A. N., Vore S. J., Luster M. I. Suppression of B cell differentiation by 2.3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. Mol. Pharmacol. 1986; 29: 372
  • Urdahl K. B., Pardoll D. M., Jenkins M. K. Self-reactive T cells are present in the peripheral lymphoid tissues of cyclosporin A-treated mice. Int. Immunol. 1992; 4: 1341
  • Urdahl K. B., Pardoll D. M., Jenkins M. K. Cyclosporin A inhibits positive selection and delays negative selection in αβ TCR transgenic mice. J. Immunol. 1994; 152: 2853
  • Ushiki T. A scanning electron-microscopic study of the rat thymus with special reference to cell types and migration of lymphocytes into the general circulation. Cell Tissue Res. 1986; 244: 285
  • Ushiki T., Iwanaga T., Masuda T., Takahashi Y., Fujita T. Distribution and ultrastructure of S-100-immunoreactive cells in the human thymus. Cell Tissue Res. 1984; 235: 509
  • Utsumi K., Sawada M., Narumiya S., Nagamine J., Sakata T., Iwagami S., Kita Y., Teraoka H., Hirano H., Ogata M., Hamaoka T., Fukiwara H. Adhesion of immature thymocytes to thymic stromal cells through fibronection molecules and its significance for the induction of thymocyte differentiation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 1991; 88: 5685
  • Van Baarlen J., Schuurman H.-J., Huber J. Acute thymus involution in infancy and childhood: a reliable marker for duration of acute illness. Hum. Pathol. 1988; 19: 1155
  • Van Baarlen J., Schuurman H.-J., Reitsma R., Huber J. Acute thymus involution during infancy and childhood: immunohistology of the thymus and peripheral lymphoid tissues after acute illness. Pedriat. Pathol. 1989; 9: 261
  • Van De Wijngaert F. P., Rademakers L. H. P. M., Schuurman H.-J., De Weger R. A., Kater L. Identification andin situ localization of the “thymic nurse cell” in man. J. Immunol. 1983; 130: 2348
  • Van De Wijngaert F. P., Kendall M. D., Schuurman H.-J., Rademakers L. H. P. M., Kater L. Heterogeneity of epithelial cells in the human thymus. An ultrastructural study. Cell Tissue Res. 1984; 237: 227
  • Van Ewijk W. Immunohistology of lymphoid and non-lymphoid cells in the thymus in relation to T lymphocyte differentiation. Am. J. Anat. 1984; 170: 311
  • Van Ewijk W. Cell surface topography of thymic microenvironments. Lab. Invest. 1988; 59: 579
  • Van Ewijk W. T-cell differentiation is influenced by thymic microenvironments. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 1991; 9: 591
  • Van Ewijk W., Rouse R. V., Weissman I. L. Distribution of H-2 microenvironments in the mouse thymus. Immunoelectron microscopic identification of I-A and H-2K bearing cells. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 1980; 28: 1089
  • Van Ewijk W., Shores E. W., Singer A. Crosstalk in the mouse thymus. Immunol. Today 1994; 15: 214
  • Van Logten M. J., Gupta B. N., McConnell E. E., Moore J. A. Role of the endocrine system in the action of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) on the thymus. Toxicology 1980; 15: 135
  • Van Logten M. J., Gupta B. N., McConnell E. E., Moore J. A. The influence of malnutrition on the toxicity of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) in rats. Toxicology 1981; 21: 77
  • Van Loveren H., Schuurman H.-J., Kampinga J., Vos J. G. Reversibility of thymic atrophy induced by 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) andbis(tri-n-butyltin)oxide (TBTO). Int. J. Immunopharmacol. 1991; 13: 369
  • Van Pelt F. N. A. M., Hassing I. G. A. M., Stelling M. A., Seinen W., Blaauboer B. J. Induction of terminal differentiation in cultured human keratinocytes by polychlorinated aromatic hydrocarbons as measured by cell size analysis. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1992; 113: 240
  • Van Vliet E., Melis M., Van Ewijk W. The influence of dexamethasone treatment on the lymphoid and stromal composition of the mouse thymus: a flow cytometric and immunohistological analysis. Cell. Immunol. 1986; 103: 229
  • Vecchi A., Mantovani A., Sironi M., Luini W., Spreafico F., Garattini S. The effect of acute administration of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) on humoral antibody production and cellmediated activities in mice. Arch. Toxicol. 1980; 163, Suppl. 4
  • Vecchi A., Sironi M., Canegrati M. A., Recchia M., Garattini S. Immunosuppressive effects of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in strains of mice with different susceptibility to induction of aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1983; 68: 434
  • Verdier F., Virat M., Schweinfurth H., Descotes J. Immunotoxicity ofbis(tri-n-butyltin)oxide in the rat. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1991; 32: 307
  • Vicente A., Varas A., Alonso L., Gomez De Moral M., Zapata A. G. Ontogeny of rat thymic dendritic cells. Immunology 1994; 82: 75
  • Volsen S. G., Barrass N., Scott M. P., Miller K. Cellular and molecular effects of di-n-octyltin dichloride on the rat thymus. Int. J. Immunopharmacol. 1989; 11: 703
  • Von Boehmer H. Thymic selection: a matter of life and death. Immunol. Today 1992; 13: 454
  • Von Boehmer H. Positive selection of lymphocytes. Cell 1994; 76: 219
  • Von Boehmer H., Kisielow P. Self-nonself discrimination by T cells. Science 1990; 248: 1369
  • Von Boehmer H., Teh H. S., Kisielow P. The thymus selects the useful, neglects the useless and destroys the harmful. Immunol. Today 1989; 10: 57
  • Von Boehmer H., Swat W., Kisielow P. Positive selection of immature αβ T cells. Immunol. Rev. 1993; 135: 67
  • Von Gaudecker B., Schmale E.-M. Similarities between Hassall's corpuscles of the human thymus and the epidermis. An investigation by electron microscopy and histochemistry. Cell Tissue Res. 1974; 151: 347
  • Von Gaudecker B., Steinmann G. G., Hansmann M.-L., Harpprecht J., Milicevic N. M., Müller-Hermelink H. K. Immunohistochemical characterization of the thymic microenvironment. A light-microscopic and ultrastructural immunocytochemical study. Cell Tissue Res. 1986; 244: 403
  • Vos J. G., Moore J. A. Suppression of cellular immunity in rats and mice by maternal treatment with 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. Int. Arch. Allergy 1974; 47: 777
  • Vos J. G., Moore J. A., Zinkl J. G. Effect of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin on the immune system of laboratory animals. Environ. Health Perspect. 1973; 5: 149
  • Vos J. G., Moore J. A., Zinkl J. G. Toxicity of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) in C57B1/6 mice. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1974; 29: 229
  • Vos J. G., De Klerk A., Krajnc E. I., Kruizinga W., Van Ommen B., Rozing J. Toxicity ofbis(tri-n-butyltin)oxide in the rat. II. Suppression of thymus-dependent immune responses and of parameters of nonspecific resistance after short-term exposure. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1984; 75: 387
  • Vos J. G., Van Logten M. J., Kreeftenberg J. G., Kruizinga W. Effect of triphenyltin hydroxide on the immune system of the rat. Toxicology 1984; 29: 325
  • Vos J. G., Krajnc E. I., Wester P. W. Immunotoxicity ofbis(tri-n-butyltin)oxide. Immunotoxicology and Immunopharmacology, J. Dean. Raven Press, New York 1985; 327
  • Vos J. G., De Klerk A., Krajnc E. I., Van Loveren H., Rozing J. Immunotoxicity ofbis(tri-n-butyltin)oxide in the rat: effects on thymus-dependent immunity and on nonspecific resistance following long-term exposure in young vs. aged rats. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1990; 105: 144
  • Vukmanovic S., Grandea A. G., III, Faas S. J., Knowles B. B., Bevan M. J. Positive selection of T-lymphocytes induced by intrathymic injection of a thymic epithelial cell line. Nature 1992; 359: 729
  • Vukmanovic S., Stella G., King P. D., Dyall R., Hogquist K. A., Harty J. T., Nikolic-Zugic J., Bevan M. J. A positively selecting thymic epithelial cell line lacks costimulatory activity. J. Immunol. 1994; 152: 3814
  • Vukmanovic S., Jameson S. C., Bevan M. J. A thymic epithelial cell line induces both positive and negative selection in the thymus. Int. Immunol. 1994; 6: 239
  • Watanabe Y., Naiki M., Wilson T., Godfrey D., Chiang B.-L., Boyd R., Ansari A., Gershwin M. E. Thymic microenvironmental abnormalities and thymic selection in NZB.H-2bm12 mice. J. Immunol. 1993; 150: 4702
  • Wester P. W., Canton J. H., Van Iersel A. A. J., Krajnc E. I., Vaessen H. A.M.G. The xicity ofbis(tri-n-butyltin)oxide (TBTO) and di-n-butyltindichloride (DBTC) in the small fish speciesOryzias latipes (medaka) andPoecilia reticulata (guppy). Aquat. Toxicol. 1990; 16: 53
  • Whiting P. H., Woo J., Adam B. J., Hasan N. U., Davidson R. J. L., Thomson A. W. Toxicity of rapamycin — a comparative and combination study with cyclosporine at immunotherapeutic dosage in the rat. Transplantation 1991; 52: 203
  • Whitlock J. P. The regulation of gene expression by 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. Pharmacol. Rev. 1987; 39: 147
  • Willcox N., Schluep M., Ritter M. A., Schuurman H.-J., Newsom-Davis J., Christensson B. Myasthenic and nonmyasthenic thymoma. An expansion of a minor cortical epithelial cell subset. Am. J. Pathol. 1987; 127: 447
  • Wirt D. P., Grogan T. M., Nagle R. B., Copeland J. G., Richter L. C., Rangel C. S., Schuchardt M., Fosse J., Layton J. M. A comprehensive immunotopographic map of human thymus. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 1988; 36: 1
  • Wodzig K. W. H., Majoor G. D., Van Breda Vriesman P. J. C. Susceptibility and resistance to cyclosporin A-induced autoimmunity in rats. Autoimmunity 1993; 16: 29
  • Wolf S. S., Cohen A. Expression of cytokines and their receptors by human thymocytes and thymic stromal cells. Immunology 1992; 77: 362
  • Woo J., Ross C. S. K., Milton J. I., Thomson A. W. Immunosuppressive activity of FK-506 in rats: flow cytometric analysis of lymphocyte populations in blood, spleen and thymus during treatment and following drug withdrawal. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 1990; 79: 109
  • Woo J., Ildstad S. T., Hronakes M. L., Thomson A. W. Kinetics of early T-cell repopulation in the mouse following syngeneic bone marrow transplantation: FK 506 causes a maturational defect of CD4+CD8− T cells. Transplant. Proc 1991; 23: 2923
  • Wu L., Vremec D., Ardavin C., Winkel K., Süss G., Georgiou H., Maraskovsky E., Cook W., Shortman K. Mouse thymus dendritic cells: kinetics of development and changes in surface markers during maturation. Eur. J. Immunol. 1995; 25: 418
  • Wyllie A. H., Kerr J. F. R., Currie A. R. Cell death: the significance of apoptosis. Int. Rev. Cytol. 1980; 68: 251
  • Yasutomi D., Odaka C., Saito S., Niizeki H., Kizaki H., Tadakuma T. Inhibition of programmed cell death by cyclosporin A: preferential blocking of cell death induced by signals via TCR/CD3 complex and its mode of action. Immunology 1992; 77: 68
  • Yeager A. M., Vogelsang G. B., Jones R. J., Farmer E. R., Altomonte V., Hess A. D., Santos G. W. Induction of cutaneous graft-vs.-host disease by administration of cyclosporine to patients undergoing autologous bone marrow transplantation of acute myeloid leukemia. Blood 1992; 79: 3031
  • Zadeh H. H., Goldschneider I. Demonstration of large-scale migration of cortical thymocytes to peripheral lymphoid tissues in cyclosporin A-treated rats. J. Exp. Med. 1993; 178: 285
  • Zhao W., Schafer R., Cuff C. F. Changes in primary and secondary lymphoid organ T-cell subpopulations resulting from acutein vivo exposure to propanil. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1995; 46: 171
  • Zheng B., Shorthouse R., Masek M. A., Berry G., Billingham M. E., Morris R. E. Effects of the new and highly active immunosuppressant, rapamycin, on lymphoid tissues and cells. in vivo, Transplant. Proc. 1991; 23: 851
  • Zöller M. Intrathymic presentation by dendritic cells and macrophages: their role in selecting T cells with specificity for internal and external nominal antigens. Immunology 1991; 74: 407
  • Zuniga-Pflucker J. C., Longo D. L., Kruisbeek A. M. Positive selection of CD4−CD8+ T cells in the thymus of normal mice. Nature 1989; 338: 76

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Order Reprints Request Corporate Permissions

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

Request Academic Permissions

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.

Related research

People also read lists articles that other readers of this article have read.

Recommended articles lists articles that we recommend and is powered by our AI driven recommendation engine.

Cited by lists all citing articles based on Crossref citations.
Articles with the Crossref icon will open in a new tab.