292
Views
78
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Article

The Consequences of Prenatal Substance Use for the Developing Fetus, Newborn, and Young Child

&
Pages 1341-1391 | Published online: 03 Jul 2009

References

  • Aaronson L. S., Macnee C. L. Tobacco, alcohol, and caffeine use during pregnancy. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Neonat. Nurs. 1989; 18: 279–287
  • Abel E. L. Prenatal exposure to cannabis: A critical review of effects on growth, development, and behavior. Behav. Neural Biol. 1980; 29: 137–156
  • Abel E. L. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida 1981; Vol. I-III
  • Abel E. L. Smoking and pregnancy. J. Psychoactive Drugs 1984; 16: 327–338
  • Abel E. L. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. Medical Economics Company, Oradell, New Jersey 1990
  • Abel E. L., Dintcheff B. A. Comparison between delta-9-tetrahydrocan-nabinol and cannabis extract on resorption rate in mice. Alcohol Drug Res. 1985–86; 6: 277–280
  • Abel E. L., Sokol R. J. Fetal alcohol syndrome is now leading cause of mental retardation. Lancet 1986; 2: 1222
  • Abel E. L., Sokol R. J. A revised conservative estimate of the incidence of FAS and its economic impact. Alcoholism: Clin. Exp. Res. 1991; 15: 514–524
  • Abel E. L., Subramanian M. G. Effects of low closes of alcohol on delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol's effects in pregnant rats. Life Sci. 1990; 47: 1677–1682
  • Abel E. L., Subramanian M., Zajac C. S. Maternal age does not affect tetrahydrocannabinol's in utero actions in rats. Life Sci. 1990; 46: 903–908
  • Abrams C. A. Cytogenetic risks to the offspring of pregnant addicts. Addict. Dis. 1975; 2: 63–77
  • Abrams R. M., Cook C. E., Davids K. H., Niederreither K., Jaeger M. J., Szeto H. H. Plasma delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in pregnant sheep and fetus after inhalation of smoke from a marijuana cigarette. Alcohol Drug Res. 1985–86; 6: 361–369
  • Acker D., Sachs B. P., Tracey K. J., Wise W. E. Abruptio placentae associated with cocaine use. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1983; 146: 220–221
  • Ahlsten G., Ewald U., Tuvemo T. Maternal smoking reduces prostacyclin formation in human umbilical arteries. A study on strictly selected pregnancies. Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. 1986; 65: 645–649
  • Ahlsten G., Ewald U., Tuvemo T. Prostacyclin-like activity in umbilical arteries is dose-dependently reduced by maternal smoking and related to nicotine levels. Biol. Neonate 1990; 58: 271–278
  • Arishima K., Lee M., Yamamoto M., Eguchi Y. Compensatory adrenal hypertrophy following unilateral adrenalectomy of fetuses of rats given alcohol throughout gestation. Fetal Ther. 1989; 4: 171–177
  • Aro T. Maternal diseases, alcohol consumption and smoking during pregnancy associated with reduction limb defects. Early Hum. Dev. 1983; 9: 49–57
  • Asch R. H., Smith C. G. Effects of δ-9-THC, the principal psychoactive component of marijuana, during pregnancy in the rhesus monkey. J. Reprod. Med. 1986; 31: 1071–1081
  • Ayromlooi J., Desiderio D., Tobias M. Effect of nicotine sulfate on the hemodynamics and acid-base balance of chronically instrumented pregnant sheep. Dev. Pharmacol. Ther. 1981; 3: 205–213
  • Bailey J. R., Cunny H. C., Paule M. G., Slikker W. Fetal disposition of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) during late pregnancy in the rhesus monkey. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1987; 9: 315–321
  • Balling R., Beier H. M. Direct effects of nicotine on rabbit preimplantation embryos. Toxicology 1985; 34: 309–313
  • Barr H. M., Streissguth A. P., Martin D. C., Herman C. S. Infant size at 8 months of age: Relationship to maternal use of alcohol, nicotine, and caffeine during pregnancy. Pediatrics 1984; 74: 336–341
  • Bassi J. A., Rosso P., Moessinger A. C., Blanc W. A., James L. S. Fetal growth retardation due to maternal tobacco smoke exposure in the rat. Pediatr. Res. 1984; 18: 127–130
  • Bauchner H., Zuckerman B. Cocaine, sudden infant death syndrome, and home monitoring. J. Pediatr. 1990; 117: 904–906
  • Bauchner H., Zuckerman B., McClain M., Frank D., Fried L. E., Kayne H. Risk of sudden infant syndrome among infants with in utero exposure to cocaine. J. Pediatr. 1988; 113: 831–834
  • Becker R. F., Little C. R., King J. E. Experimental studies on nicotine absorption in rats during pregnancy. III. Effect of subcutaneous injection of small chronic doses upon mother, fetus, and neonate. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1968; 110: 957–968
  • Becker R. F., Martin J. C. Vital effects of chronic nicotine absorption and chronic hypoxic stress during pregnancy and the nursing period. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1971; 110: 522–533
  • Berkowitz G. S., Holford T. R., Berkowitz R. L. Effects of cigarette smoking, alcohol, coffee and tea consumption on preterm delivery. Early Hum. Dev. 1982; 7: 239–250
  • Bingol N., Fuchs M., Diaz V., Stone R. K., Gromisch D. S. Teratogenicity of cocaine in humans. J. Pediatr. 1987; 110: 93–96
  • Brent R. L. Relationship between uterine vascular clamping, vascular disruption syndrome, and cocaine teratogenicity. Teratology 1990; 41: 757–760
  • Brien J. F., Clarke D. W., Smith G. N., Richardson B., Patrick J. Disposition of acute, multiple-dose ethanol in the near-term pregnant ewe. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1987; 157: 204–211
  • Brien J. F., Smith G. N. Effects of alcohol (ethanol) on the fetus. J. Dev. Physiol. 1991; 15: 21–32
  • Bruner J. P., Forouzan I. Smoking and buccally administered nicotine: Acute effect on uterine and umbilical artery Doppler flow velocity waveforms. J. Reprod. Med. 1991; 36: 435–440
  • Burchfield D. J., Abrams R. M., Miller R., De Vane C. L. Disposition of cocaine in pregnant sheep. II. Physiological responses. Dev. Pharmacol. Ther. 1991; 16: 130–138
  • Burchfield D. J., Graham E. M., Abrams R. M., Gerhardt K. J. Cocaine alters behavioral states in fetal sheep. Dev. Brain Res. 1990; 56: 41–45
  • Butler N. R., Goldstein H. Smoking in pregnancy and subsequent child development. Br. Med. J. 1973; 4: 573–575
  • Carlan S. J., Stromquist C., Angel J. L., Harris M., O'Brien W. F. Cocaine and indomethacin: Fetal anuria, neonatal edema, and gastrointestinal bleeding. Obstet. Gynecol. 1991; 78: 501–503
  • Carzoli R. P., Murphy S. P., Hammer-Knisely J., Houy J. Evaluation of auditory brain-stem response in full-term infants of cocaine-abusing mothers. Am. J. Dis. Child. 1991; 145: 1013–1016
  • Cejtin H. E., Parsons M. T., Wilson L. Cocaine use and its effect on umbilical artery prostacyclin production. Prostaglandins 1990; 40: 249–257
  • Chasnoff I. J. Cocaine, pregnancy, and the neonate. Women Health 1989; 15(3)23–35
  • Chasnoff I. J., Burns W. J., Schnoll S. H., Burns K. A. Cocaine use in pregnancy. N. Engl. J. Med. 1985; 313: 666–669
  • Chasnoff I. J., Bussey M. E., Savich R., Stack C. M. Perinatal cerebral infarction and maternal cocaine use. J. Pediatr. 1986a; 108: 456–459
  • Chasnoff I. J., Chisum G. M., Kaplan W. E. Maternal cocaine use and genitourinary tract malformations. Teratology 1988; 37: 201–204
  • Chasnoff I. J., Griffith D. R., Mac Gregor S., Dirkes K., Burns K. A. Temporal patterns of cocaine use in pregnancy. JAMA 1989a; 261: 1741–1744
  • Chasnoff I. J., Hunt C. E., Kletter R., Kaplan D. Prenatal cocaine exposure is associated with respiratory pattern abnormalities. Am. J. Dis. Child. 1989b; 143: 583–587
  • Chasnoff I. J., Keith L. G., Schnoll S. H. Perinatal aspects of maternal addiction. Curr. Probl. Obstet. Gynecol. Fertil. 1986b; 9: 401–440
  • Chasnoff I. J., Landress H. L., Barrett M. E. The prevalence of illicit-drug or alcohol use during pregnancy and discrepancies in mandatory reporting in Pinellas County, Florida. N. Engl. J. Med. 1990; 322: 1202–1206
  • ChÁVez G. F., Mulinare J., Cordero J. F. Maternal cocaine use during early pregnancy as a risk factor for congenital urogenital anomalies. JAMA 1989; 262: 795–798
  • Chen C., Duara S., Neto G. S., Tan S., Bandstra E. S., Gerhardt T., Bancalari E. Respiratory instability in neonates with in utero exposure to cocaine. J. Pediatr. 1991; 119: 111–113
  • Chernoff G. F. The fetal alcohol syndrome in mice: An animal model. Teratology 1977; 15: 223–230
  • Chernoff G. F. The fetal alcohol syndrome in mice: Maternal variables. Teratology 1980; 22: 71–75
  • Cherukuri R., Minkoff H., Feldman J., Parekh A., Glass L. A cohort study of alkaloidal cocaine (“crack”) in pregnancy. Obstet. Gynecol. 1988; 72: 147–151
  • Chouteau M., Namerow P. B., Leppert P. The effect of cocaine abuse on birth weight and gestational age. Obstet. Gynecol. 1988; 72: 351–354
  • Church M. W., Dintcheff B. A., Gessner P. K. Dose-dependent consequences of cocaine on pregnancy outcome in the Long-Evans rat. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 1988; 10: 51–58
  • Church M. W., Overbeck G. W. Prenatal cocaine exposure in the Long-Evans rat: III. Developmental effects on the brainstem auditory-evoked potential. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 1990; 12: 345–351
  • Ciociola A. A., Gautieri R. F. Evaluation of the teratogenicity of morphine sulfate administered via a miniature implantable pump. J. Pharm. Sci. 1983; 72: 742–745
  • Clapp J. F., Keve T. M., Vial C., McLaughlin M. K. Ovine placental perfusion balance: Effect of marijuana smoke. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1988; 159: 1430–1434
  • Clapp J. F., Wesley M., Cooke R., Pekala R., Holstein C. The effects of marijuana smoke on gas exchange in ovine pregnancy. Alcohol Drug Res. 1987; 7: 85–92
  • Clarren S. K., Astley S. J., Bowden D. M., Lai H., Milam A. H., Rudeen P. K., Shoemaker W. J. Neuroanatomic and neurochemical abnormalities in nonhuman primate infants exposed to weekly doses of ethanol during gestation. Alcoholism: Clin. Exp. Res. 1990; 14: 674–683
  • Clarren S. K., Smith D. W. The fetal alcohol syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med. 1978; 298: 1063–1067
  • Collins M. H., Moessinger A. C., Kleinerman J., Bassi J., Rosso P., Collins A. M., James L. S., Blanc W. A. Fetal lung hypoplasia associated with maternal smoking: A morphometric analysis. Pediatr. Res. 1985; 19: 408–412
  • Cotterill R. W., Penney L. L., Vaughn D. L., Reimann B. E., Rauls D. O. Acute cardiovascular effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in pregnant anesthetized sheep. Biol. Res. Pregnancy Perinatol. 1984; 5: 1–5
  • Creighton-Taylor J. A., Rudeen P. K. Prenatal ethanol exposure and opiatergic influence on puberty in the female rat. Alcohol Alcoholism 1991; 8: 187–191
  • Czyrko C., Del Pin C. A., O'Neill J. A., Peckham G. J., Ross A. J. Maternal cocaine abuse and necrotizing enterocolitis: Outcome and survival. J. Pediatr. Surg. 1991; 26: 414–421
  • Dahl R. E., Scher M. S., Day N. L., Richardson G. A., Klepper T., Robles N. The effects of prenatal marijuana exposure: Evidence of EEG-sleep disturbances. J. Dev. Behav. Pediatr. 1989; 10: 264A
  • Dahlgren I. L., Matuszczyk J. V., Hard E. Sexual orientation in male rats prenatally exposed to ethanol. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 1991; 13: 267–269
  • Dalterio S. L. Cannabinoid exposure: Effects on development. Neurobehav. Toxicol. Teratol. 1986; 8: 345–352
  • Dalterio S., Thomford P. J., Michael S. D., De Angelo L., Mayfield D. Perinatal cannabinoid exposure: Effects on hepatic cytochrome P-450 and plasma protein levels in male mice. Teratology 1986; 33: 195–201
  • Day N. L., Jasperse D., Richardson G., Robles N., Sambamoorthi U., Taylor P., Scher M., Stoffer D., Cornelius M. Prenatal exposure to alcohol: Effect on infant growth and morphologic characteristics. Pediatrics 1989; 84: 536–541
  • Day N. L., Richardson G. A. Prenatal marijuana use: Epidemiology, methodologic issues, and infant outcome. Clin. Perinatal. 1991; 18: 77–91
  • Day N. L., Robles N., Richardson G., Geva D., Taylor P., Scher M., Stoffer D., Cornelius M., Goldschmidt L. The effects of prenatal alcohol use on the growth of children at three years of age. Alcoholism: Clin. Exp. Res. 1991a; 15: 67–71
  • Day N., Sambamoorthi U., Taylor P., Richardson G., Robles N., Jhon Y., Scher M., Stoffer D., Cornelius M., Jasperse D. Prenatal marijuana use and neonatal outcome. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 1991b; 13: 329–334
  • De Vane C. L., Simpkins J. W., Miller R. L., Braun S. B. Tissue distribution of cocaine in the pregnant rat. Life Sci. 1989; 45: 1271–1276
  • Diwan V. K., Vaughan T. L., Yang C. Y. Maternal smoking in relation to the incidence of early neonatal jaundice. Gynecol. Obstet. Invest. 1989; 27: 22–25
  • Dixon S. D., Bejar R. Echoencephalographic findings in neonates associated with maternal cocaine and methamphetamine use: Incidence and clinical correlates. J. Pediatr. 1989; 115: 770–778
  • Doberczak T. M., Shanzer S., Senie R. T., Kandall S. R. Neonatal neurologic and electroencephalographic effects of intrauterine cocaine exposure. J. Pediatr. 1988; 113: 354–358
  • Doering P. L., Davidson C. L., La Fauce L., Williams C. A. Effects of cocaine on the human fetus: A review of clinical studies. DICP 1989; 23: 639–645
  • Dolkart L. A., Plessinger M. A., Woods J. R. Effects of alpha, receptor blockade upon maternal and fetal cardiovascular responses to cocaine. Obstet. Gynecol. 1990; 75: 745–751
  • Dombrowski M. P., Wolfe H. M., Welch R. A., Evans M. I. Cocaine abuse is associated with abruptio placentae and decreased birth weight, but not shorter labor. Obstet. Gynecol. 1991; 11: 139–141
  • Dow-Edwards D. L. Long-term neurochemical and neurobehavioral consequences of cocaine use during pregnancy. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1989; 562: 280–289
  • Dow-Edwards D. L., Freed L. A., Milhorat T. H. Stimulation of brain metabolism by perinatal cocaine exposure. Dev. Brain Res. 1988; 42: 137–141
  • Downing G. J., Horner S. R., Kilbride H. W. Characteristics of perinatal cocaine-exposed infants with necrotizing enterocolitis. Am. J. Dis. Child. 1991; 145: 26–27
  • Druse M. J., Tajuddin N., Kuo A., Connerty M. Effects of in utero ethanol exposure on the developing dopaminergic system in rats. J. Neurosci. Res. 1990; 27: 233–240
  • Durand D. J., Espinoza A. M., Nickerson B. G. Association between prenatal cocaine exposure and sudden infant death syndrome. J. Pediatr. 1990; 117: 909–911
  • El-Bizri H., Guest I., Varma D. R. Effects of cocaine on rat embryo development in vivo and in cultures. Pediatr. Res. 1991; 29: 187–190
  • Ellis F. W., Pick J. R. An animal model of the fetal alcohol syndrome in beagles. Alcoholism: Clin. Exp. Res. 1980; 4: 123–134
  • Enters E. K., Guo H. Z., Pandey U., Ko D. J., Robinson S. E. The effect of prenatal methadone exposure on development and nociception during the early postnatal period of the rat. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 1991; 13: 161–166
  • Eriksen P. S., Gennser G., Lofgren O., Nilsson K. Acute effects of maternal smoking on fetal breathing and movements. Obstet. Gynecol. 1983; 61: 367–372
  • Fabro S., McLachlan J. A., Dames N. M. Chemical exposure of embryos during the preimplantation stages of pregnancy: Mortality rate and intrauterine development. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1984; 148: 929–938
  • Falconer J. The effect of maternal ethanol infusion on placental blood flow and fetal glucose metabolism in sheep. Alcohol Alcoholism 1990; 25: 413–416
  • Falek A., Donahoe R. M., Madden J. J., Shafer D. A. Opiates as immunosuppressive and genotoxic agents. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 1991; 288: 189–201
  • Fantel A. G., Mac Phail B. J. The teratogenicity of cocaine. Teratology 1982; 26: 17–19
  • Fantel A. G., Person R. E., Burroughs-Gleim C. J., Mackler B. Direct embryotoxicity of cocaine in rats: Effects on mitochondrial activity, cardiac function, and growth and development in vitro. Teratology 1990; 42: 35–43
  • Farrar H. C., Kearns G. L. Cocaine: Clinical pharmacology and toxicology. J. Pediatr. 1989; 115: 665–675
  • Fielding J. E. Smoking and women. New Engl. J. Med. 1987; 317: 1343–1345
  • Finnegan L. P. Pathophysiological and behavioural effects of the transplacental transfer of narcotic drugs to the foetuses and neonates of narcotic-dependent mothers. Bull. Narc. 1979; 31(3,4)1–58
  • Finnell R. H., Toloyan S., Van Waes M., Kalivas P. W. Preliminary evidence for a cocaine-induced embryopathy in mice. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1990; 103: 228–237
  • Fisher S. E. Selective fetal malnutrition: The fetal alcohol syndrome. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 1988; 7: 101–106
  • Fisher S. E., Atkinson M., Chang B. Effect of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on the in vitro uptake of alpha-amino isobutyric acid by term human placental slices. Pediatr. Res. 1987; 21: 104–107
  • Fleischman R. W., Naqvi R. H., Rosenkrantz H., Hayden D. W. The embryotoxic effects of cannabinoids in rats and mice. J. Environ. Pathol. Toxicol. 1980; 4: 471–482
  • Floyd R. L., Zahniser S. C., Gunter E. P., Kendrick J. S. Smoking during pregnancy: Prevalence, effects, and intervention strategies. Birth 1991; 18: 48–53
  • Fogelman K. R., Manor O. Smoking in pregnancy and development into early adulthood. Br. Med. J. 1988; 297: 1233–1236
  • Foss J. A., Riley E. P. Failure of acute cocaine administration to differentially affect acoustic startle and activity in rats prenatally exposed to cocaine. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 1991a; 13: 547–551
  • Foss J. A., Riley E. P. Elicitation and modification of the acoustic startle reflex in animals prenatally exposed to cocaine. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 1991b; 13: 541–546
  • Fox N. L., Sexton M., Hebel J. R. Prenatal exposure to tobacco: I. Effects on physical growth at age three. Int. J. Epidemiol. 1990; 19: 66–71
  • Frank D. A., Bauchner H., Parker S., Huber A. M., Kyei-Aboagye K., Cabral H., Zuckerman B. Neonatal body proportionality and body composition after in utero exposure to cocaine and marijuana. J. Pediatr. 1990; 117: 622–626
  • Frank D. A., Zuckerman B. S., Amaro H., Aboagye K., Bauchner H., Cabral H., Fried L., Hingson R., Kayne H., Levenson S. M., Parker S., Reece H., Vinci R. Cocaine use during pregnancy: Prevalence and correlates. Pediatrics 1988; 82: 888–895
  • Fried P. A., O'Connell C. M. A comparison of the effects of prenatal exposure to tobacco, alcohol, cannabis and caffeine on birth size and subsequent growth. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 1987; 9: 79–85
  • Fried P. A., Watkinson B., Dillon R. F., Dulberg C. S. Neonatal neurological status in a low-risk population after prenatal exposure to cigarettes, marijuana, and alcohol. J. Dev. Behav. Pediatr. 1987; 8: 318–326
  • Fried P. A., Watkinson B., Grant A., Knights R. M. Changing patterns of soft drug use prior to and during pregnancy: A prospective study. Drug. Alcohol Depend. 1980; 6: 323–343
  • Fried P. A., Watkinson B., Willan A. Marijuana use during pregnancy and decreased length of gestation. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1984; 150: 23–27
  • Fulroth R., Phillips B., Durand D. J. Perinatal outcome of infants exposed to cocaine and/or heroin in utero. Am. J. Dis. Child. 1989; 143: 905–910
  • Fung Y. K., Reed J. A., Lau Y.-S. Prenatal cocaine exposure fails to modify neurobehavioral responses and the striatal dopaminergic system in newborn rats. Gen. Pharmacol. 1989; 20: 689–693
  • Garban Z., Daranyi G., Gergen I., Prunkl A., Stefan C., Gogoasa I. Homeostasis changes induced by the action of ethanol on the maternofetal complex in rats. VII. Effects of some alkaline and alkaline-earth metals of blood serum. Morphol. Embryol. (Bucur.) 1990b; 36: 167–177
  • Garban Z., Sandor S., Daranyi G., Prunki A., Precob V., Gergen I., Eremia I. Homeostasis changes induced by the action of ethanol on the materno-fetal complex in rats. V. Late fetal effects of acute intoxication during the preimplantation period. Morphol. Embryol. (Bucur.) 1990a; 36: 59–68
  • Gartner L. P., Saad A. Y., Hiatt J. L. Effects of nicotine on murine incisor development. J. Biol. Buccale 1990; 18: 83–88
  • Geber W. F., Schramm L. C. Congenital malformations of the central nervous system produced by narcotic analgesics in the hamster. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1975; 123: 705–713
  • Geggel R. L., McInerny J., Estes N. A. M. Transient neonatal ventricular tachycardia associated with maternal cocaine use. Am. J. Cardiol. 1989; 63: 383–384
  • Gerdin E., Rane A., Lindberg B. Transplacental transfer of morphine in man. J. Perinat. Med. 1990; 18: 305–312
  • Gibson G. T., Baghurst P. A., Colley D. P. Maternal alcohol, tobacco, and cannabis consumption and the outcome of pregnancy. Aust. N. Z. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 1983; 23: 15–19
  • Gilliam D. M., Irtenkauf K. T. Maternal genetic effects on ethanol terato-genesis and dominance of relative embryonic resistance to malformations. Alcoholism: Clin. Exp. Res. 1990; 14: 539–545
  • Gilliam D. M., Kotch L. E. Alcohol related birth defects in long- and short-sleep mice: Postnatal litter mortality. Alcohol 1990; 7: 483–487
  • Gillogley K. M., Evans A. T., Hansen R. L., Samuels S. J., Batra K. K. The perinatal impact of cocaine, amphetamine, and opiate use detected by universal intrapartum screening. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1990; 163: 1535–1542
  • Gingras J. L., Weese-Mayer D. Maternal cocaine addiction. II: An animal model for the study of brainstem mechanisms operative in sudden infant death syndrome. Med. Hypotheses 1990; 33: 231–234
  • Glass L., Evans H. E. Perinatal drug abuse. Pediatr. Ann. 1979; 8: 84–92
  • Goldbaum G., Daling J., Milham S. Risk factors for gastroschisis. Teratology 1990; 42: 397–403
  • Graham K., Dimitrakoudis D., Pellegrini E., Koren G. Pregnancy outcome following first trimester exposure to cocaine in social users in Toronto, Canada. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. 1989; 31: 143–148
  • Greenfield S. P., Rutigliano E., Steinhardt G., Elder J. S. Genitourinary tract malformations and maternal cocaine abuse. Urology 1991; 37: 455–459
  • Greenland S., Richwald G. A., Honda G. D. The effects of marijuana use during pregnancy. II. A study in a low-risk home-delivery population. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1983; 11: 359–366
  • Greenland S., Staisch K. J., Brown N., Gross S. J. The effects of marijuana use during pregnancy. I. A preliminary epidemiologic study. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1982; 143: 408–413
  • Grummer M. A., Zachman R. D. The effect of maternal ethanol ingestion on fetal vitamin A in the rat. Pediatri. Res. 1990; 28: 186–189
  • Hadeed A. J., Siegel S. R. Maternal cocaine use during pregnancy: Effect on the newborn infant. Pediatrics 1989; 84: 205–210
  • HalmesmÄKi E. Alcohol counselling of 85 pregnant problem drinkers: Effect on drinking and fetal outcome. Br. J. Obstet. Gyncol. 1988; 95: 243–247
  • HalmesmÄKi E., VÄLimÄKi M., Karonen S.-L., Ylikorkala O. Low somatomedin C and high growth hormone levels in newborns damaged by maternal alcohol abuse. Obstet. Gynecol. 1989; 74: 366–370
  • Handler A., Kistin N., Davis F., FerrÉ C. Cocaine use during pregnancy: Perinatal outcomes. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1991; 133: 818–825
  • Hannig V. L., Phillips J. A. Maternal cocaine abuse and fetal anomalies: Evidence for teratogenic effects of cocaine. South Med. J. 1991; 84: 498–499
  • Hanson J. W., Streissguth A. P., Smith D. W. The effects of moderate alcohol consumption during pregnancy on fetal growth and morphogenesis. J. Pediatr. 1978; 92: 457–460
  • Harrison K. L., Robinson A. G. The effect of maternal smoking on carboxyhemoglobin levels and acid-base balance of the fetus. Clin. Toxicol. 1981; 18: 165–168
  • Hatch E. E., Bracken M. B. Effect of marijuana use in pregnancy on fetal growth. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1986; 124: 986–993
  • Hauser K. F., Stiene-Martin A. Characterization of opioid-dependent glial development in dissociated and organotypic cultures of mouse central nervous system: Critical periods and target specificity. Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res. 1991; 62: 245–255
  • Hazelhoff-Roelfzema W., Roelofsen A. M., Copius Peereboom-Stegeman J. H. Light microscopic aspects of the rat placenta after chorionic cadmium administration. Sci. Total Environ. 1985; 42: 181–184
  • Hein P. R., SchatorjÉ J. S., Frencken H. J., Segers M. F., Thomas C. M. The effect of chronic oral methadone treatment on monkey chorionic gonadotropin, estradiol, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, progesterone, prolactin, and Cortisol levels during pregnancy in the cynomolgus monkey (Macaca fascicularis). Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. 1991; 38: 145–150
  • Hemminki K., Mutanen P., Saloniemi I. Smoking and the occurrence of congenital malformations and spontaneous abortions: Multivariate analysis. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1983; 145: 61–66
  • Henderson M. G., McMillen B. A. Effects of prenatal exposure to cocaine or related drugs on rat developmental and neurological indices. Brain Res. Bull. 1990; 24: 207–212
  • Himmelberger D. U., Brown B. W., Cohen E. N. Cigarette smoking during pregnancy and the occurrence of spontaneous abortion and congenital abnormality. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1978; 108: 470–479
  • Hingson R., Alpert J. J., Day N., Dooling E., Kayne H., Morelock S., Oppenheimer E., Zuckerman B. Effects of maternal drinking and marijuana use on fetal growth and development. Pediatrics 1982; 70: 539–546
  • Hoff S. F. Synaptogenesis in the hippocampal dentate gyrus: Effects of in utero ethanol exposure. Brain Res. Bull. 1988; 21: 47–54
  • Hollinshead W. H., Griffin J. F., Scott H. D., Burke M. E., Coustan D. R., Vest T. A. Statewide prevalence of illicit drug use by pregnant women-Rhode Island. Morbid. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 1990; 39: 225–227
  • Holsclaw D. S., Topham A. L. The effects of smoking on fetal, neonatal, and childhood development. Pediatr. Ann. 1978; 7: 201–221
  • Householder J., Hatcher R., Burns W., Chasnoff I. Infants born to narcotic-addicted mothers. Psychol. Bull. 1982; 92: 453–468
  • Hoyme H. E., Jones K. L., Dixon S. D., Jewett T., Hanson J. W., Robinson L. K., Msall M. E., Allanson J. E. Prenatal cocaine exposure and fetal vascular disruption. Pediatrics 1990; 85: 743–747
  • Hume R. F., O'Donnell K. J., Stanger C. L., Killam A. P., Gingras J. L. In utero cocaine exposure: Observations of fetal behavioral state may predict neonatal outcome. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1989; 161: 685–690
  • Hutchings D. E. Issues of risk assessment: Lessons from the use and abuse of drugs during pregnancy. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 1990; 12: 183–189
  • Hutchings D. E., Fico T. A., Banks A. N., Dick L. S., Brake S. C. Prenatal delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in the rat: Effects on postweaning growth. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 1991; 13: 245–248
  • Hutchings D. E., Fico T. A., Dow-Edwards D. L. Prenatal cocaine: Maternal toxicity, fetal effects and locomotor activity in rat offspring. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 1989a; 11: 65–69
  • Hutchings D. E., Gamagaris Z., Miller N., Fico T. A. The effects of prenatal exposure to delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on the rest-activity cycle of the preweaning rat. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 1989b; 11: 353–356
  • Hutchings D. E., Martin B. R., Gamagaris Z., Miller N., Fico T. Plasma concentrations of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in dams and fetuses following acute or multiple prenatal dosing in rats. Life Sci. 1989c; 44: 697–701
  • Hutchings D. E., Morgan B., Brake S. C., Shi T., La Salle E. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol during pregnancy in the rat: I. Differential effects on maternal nutrition, embryotoxicity, and growth in the offspring. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 1987; 9: 39–43
  • Ioffe S., Childiaeva R., Chernick V. Prolonged effects of maternal alcohol ingestion on the neonatal electroencephalogram. Pediatrics 1984; 74: 330–335
  • Johanson C.-E., Fischman M. W. The pharmacology of cocaine related to its abuse. Pharmacol. Rev. 1989; 41: 3–52
  • John E. M., Savitz D. A., Sandler D. P. Prenatal exposure to parents' smoking and childhood cancer. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1991; 133: 123–132
  • Johnston C. Cigarette smoking and the outcome of human pregnancies: A status report on the consequences. Clin. Toxicol. 1981; 18: 189–209
  • Jollie W. P. Effects of sustained dietary ethanol on the ultrastructure of the visceral yolk-sac placenta of the rat. Teratology 1990; 42: 541–552
  • Jones C. L., Lopez R. E. Direct and indirect effects on the infant of maternal drug abuse. New Perspectives in Prenatal Care, Merkatz, Thompson. Elsevier, New York 1990
  • Jones K. L. Fetal alcohol syndrome. Pediatr. Rev. 1986; 8: 122–126
  • Jones K. L. Developmental pathogenesis of defects associated with prenatal cocaine exposure: Fetal vascular disruption. Clin. Perinatol. 1991; 18: 139–146
  • Jones K. L., Smith D. W. Recognition of the fetal alcohol syndrome in early infancy. Lancet 1973; 2: 999–1001
  • Jones K. L., Smith D. W., Streissguth A. P., Myrianthopoulos N. C. Outcome in offspring of chronic alcoholic women. Lancet 1974; 1: 1076–1078
  • Jones K. L., Smith D. W., Ulleland C. N., Streissguth A. P. Pattern of malformation in offspring of chronic alcoholic mothers. Lancet 1973; 1: 1267–1271
  • Joschko M. A., Dreosti I. E., Tulsi R. S. The teratogenic effects of nicotine in vitro in rats: A light and electron microscope study. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 1991; 13: 307–316
  • Kaminski M., Rumeau C., Schwartz D. Alcohol consumption in pregnant women and the outcome of pregnancy. Alcoholism: Clin. Exp. Res. 1978; 2: 155–163
  • Kandall S. R., Gaines J. Maternal substance use and subsequent Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) in offspring. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 1991; 13: 235–240
  • Kaye K., Elkind L., Goldberg D., Tytun A. Birth outcomes for infants of drug abusing mothers. JV. Y. State J. Med. 1989; 89: 256–261
  • Keir W. J. Inhibition of retinoic acid synthesis and its implications in fetal alcohol syndrome. Alcoholism: Clin. Exp. Res. 1991; 15: 560–564
  • Keith L. G., Mac Gregor S., Friedell S., Rosner M., Chasnoff I. J., Sciarra J. J. Substance abuse in pregnant women: Recent experience at the Perinatal Center for Chemical Dependence of Northwestern Memorial Hospital. Obstet. Gynecol. 1989; 73: 715–720
  • Kennedy L. A. The pathogenesis of brain abnormalities in the fetal alcohol syndrome: An integrating hypothesis. Teratology 1984; 29: 363–368
  • Keppen L. D., Pysher T., Rennert O. M. Zinc deficiency acts as a coteratogen with alcohol in fetal alcohol syndrome. Pediatr. Res. 1985; 19: 944–947
  • Khoury M. J., Weinstein A., Panny S., Holtzman N. A., Lindsay P. K., Farrel K., Eisenberg M. Maternal cigarette smoking and oral clefts: A population-based study. Am. J. Public Health 1987; 77: 623–625
  • Kleinman J. C., Kopstein A. Smoking during pregnancy, 1967–80. Am. J. Public Health 1987; 77: 823–825
  • Kleinman J. C., Pierre M. B., Madans J. H., Land G. H., Schramm W. F. The effects of maternal smoking on fetal and infant mortality. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1988; 127: 274–282
  • Kline J., Levin B., Stein Z., Susser M., Warburton D. Epidemiologic detection of low dose effects on the developing fetus. Environ. Health Perspect. 1981; 42: 119–126
  • Kline J., Stein Z., Hutzler M. Cigarettes, alcohol and marijuana: Varying associations with birthweight. Int. J. Epidemiol. 1987; 16: 44–51
  • Kline J., Stein Z., Shrout P., Susser M., Warburton D. Drinking during pregnancy and spontaneous abortion. Lancet 1980; 2: 176–180
  • Koren G., Shear H., Graham K., Einarson T. Bias against the null hypothesis: The reproductive hazards of cocaine. Lancet 1989; 2: 1440–1442
  • Kraus J. F., Greenland S., Bulterys M. Risk factors for sudden infant death syndrome in the U.S. Collaborative Perinatal Project. Int. J. Epidemiol. 1989; 18: 113–120
  • Kronick J. B. Teratogenic effects of ethyl alcohol administered to pregnant mice. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1976; 124: 676–680
  • Land D. B., Kushner R. Drug abuse during pregnancy in an inner-city hospital: Prevalence and patterns. J. Am. Osteopath. Assoc. 1990; 90: 421–426
  • Ledig M., Megias-Megias L., Tholey G. Maternal alcohol exposure before and during pregnancy: Effect on development of neurons and glial cells in culture. Alcohol Alcoholism 1991; 26: 169–176
  • Lee C. C., Chiang C. N. Maternal-fetal transfer of abused substances: Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic data. Prenatal Drug Exposure: Kinetics and Dynamics, C. N. Chiang, C. C. Lee. NIDA. 1985; 60: 110–147, Res. Monogr.
  • Leichter J. Growth of fetuses of rats exposed to ethanol and cigarette smoke during gestation. Growth Dev. Aging 1989; 53: 129–134
  • Lester B. M., Dreher M. Effects of marijuana use during pregnancy on newborn cry. Child Dev. 1989; 60: 765–771
  • Lichtensteiger W., Ribary U., Schlumpf M., Odermatt B., Widmer H. R. Prenatal adverse effects of nicotine on the developing brain. Prog. Brain Res. 1988; 73: 137–157
  • Lifschitz M. H., Wilson G. S. Patterns of growth and development in narcotic-exposed children. Methodological Issues in Controlled Studies on Effects of Prenatal Exposure to Drug Abuse, M. M. Kilbey, K. Asghar. NIDA. 1991; 114: 323–339, Res. Monogr.
  • Lin G. W.-J. Maternal-fetal folate transfer: Effect of ethanol and dietary folate deficiency. Alcohol 1991; 8: 169–172
  • Linn S., Schoenbaum S. C., Monson R. R., Rosner R., Stubblefield P. C., Ryan K. J. The association of marijuana use with outcome of pregnancy. Am. J. Public Health 1983; 73: 1161–1164
  • Lipshultz S. E., Frassica J. J., Orav E. J. Cardiovascular abnormalities in infants prenatally exposed to cocaine. J. Pediatr. 1991; 118: 44–51
  • Little B. B., Snell L. M. Brain growth among fetuses exposed to cocaine in utero: Asymmetrical growth retardation. Obstel. Gynecol. 1991; 77: 361–364
  • Little B. B., Snell L. M., Klein V. R., Gilstrap L. C. Cocaine abuse during pregnancy: Maternal and fetal implications. Obstet. Gynecol. 1989; 73: 157–160
  • Little B. B., Snell L. M., Palmore M. K., Gilstrap L. C. Cocaine use in pregnant women in a large public hospital. Am. J. Perinatol. 1988; 5: 206–207
  • Little B. B., Snell L. M., Rosenfeld C. R., Gilstrap L. C., Gant N. F. Failure to recognize fetal alcohol syndrome in newborn infants. Am. J. Dis. Child. 1990; 144: 1142–1146
  • Little R. E. Moderate alcohol use during pregnancy and decreased infant birth weight. Am. J. Public Health 1977; 67: 1154–1156
  • Luck W., Nau H., Hansen R., Steldinger R. Extent of nicotine and cotinine transfer to the human fetus, placenta and amniotic fluid of smoking mothers. Dev. Pharmacol. Ther. 1985; 8: 384–395
  • Luke B. The metabolic basis of the fetal alcohol syndrome. Int. J. Fertil. 1990; 35: 333–337
  • Mac Gregor S. N., Keith L. G., Chasnoff I. J., Rosner M. A., Chisum G. M., Shaw P., Minogue J. P. Cocaine use during pregnancy: Adverse perinatal outcome. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1987; 157: 686–690
  • Madden J. D., Payne T. F., Miller S. Maternal cocaine abuse and effect on the newborn. Pediatrics 1986; 77: 209–211
  • Magnusson C. G. Maternal smoking influences cord serum IgE and IgD levels and increases the risk for subsequent infant allergy. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 1986; 78: 898–904
  • Mahalik M. P., Gautieri R. F., Mann D. E. Teratogenic potential of cocaine hydrochloride in CF-1 mice. J. Pharm. Sci. 1980; 69: 703–706
  • Marbury M. C., Linn S., Monson R., Schoenbaum S., Stubblefield P. G., Ryan K. J. The association of alcohol consumption with outcome of pregnancy. Am. J. Public Health 1983; 73: 1165–1168
  • Maritz G. Pre- and postnatal carbohydrate metabolism of rat lung tissue. The effect of maternal nicotine exposure. Arch. Toxicol. 1986; 59: 89–93
  • Martin J. C. An overview: Maternal nicotine and caffeine consumption and offspring outcome. Neurobehav. Toxicol. Teratol. 1982; 4: 421–427
  • Martin J. C. Irreversible changes in mature and aging animals following intrauterine drug exposure. Neurobehav. Toxicol. Teratol. 1986; 8: 335–343
  • Mastrogiannis D. S., Decavalas G. O., Verma U., Tejani N. Perinatal outcome after recent cocaine usage. Obstet. Gynecol. 1990; 76: 8–11
  • Matera C., Warren W. B., Moomjy M., Fink D. J., Fox H. E. Prevalence of use of cocaine and other substances in an obstetric population. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1990; 163: 797–801
  • McCalla S., Minkoff H. L., Feldman J., Delke I., Salwin M., Valencia G., Glass L. The biologic and social consequences of perinatal cocaine use in an inner-city population: Results of an anonymous cross-sectional study. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1991; 164: 625–630
  • McFarland B. J., Seidler F. J., Slotkin T. A. Inhibition of DNA synthesis in neonatal rat brain regions caused by acute nicotine administration. Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res. 1991; 58: 223–229
  • McIntosh I. D. Smoking and pregnancy: Attributable risks and public health implications. Can. J. Public Health 1984; 75: 141–148
  • McTiernan M. J., Burchfield D. J., Abrams R. M., Cassin S. Carboxy- and oxyhemoglobin in pregnant ewe and fetus after inhalation of marijuana, marijuana placebo and tobacco cigarette smoke. Life Sci. 1988; 43: 2043–2047
  • Mehanny S. Z., Abdel- Rahman M. S., Ahmed Y. Y. Teratogenic effect of cocaine and diazepam in CF1 mice. Teratology 1991; 43: 11–17
  • Michaelis E. K. Fetal alcohol exposure: Cellular toxicity and molecular events involved in toxicity. Alcoholism: Clin. Exp. Res. 1990; 14: 819–826
  • Miller B. M., Rosario P. G., Prakash K., Patel H. K., Gerst P. H. Neonatal intestinal perforation: The “crack” connection. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 1990; 85: 767–769
  • Miller M. W., Nowakowski R. S. Effect of prenatal exposure to ethanol on the cell cycle kinetics and growth fraction in the proliferative zones of fetal rat cerebral cortex. Alcoholism: Clin. Exp. Res. 1991; 15: 229–232
  • Mills J. L., Graubard B. I. Is moderate drinking during pregnancy associated with an increased risk for malformations?. Pediatrics 1987; 80: 309–314
  • Mills J. L., Graubard B. I., Harley E. E., Rhoads G. G., Berendes H. W. Maternal alcohol consumption and birth weight—How much drinking during pregnancy is safe?. JAMA 1984; 252: 1875–1879
  • Minkoff H. L., McCalla S., Delke I., Stevens R., Salwen M., Feldman J. The relationship of cocaine use to syphilis and human immunodeficiency virus infections among inner city parturient women. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1990; 163: 521–526
  • Mirochnick M., Meyer J., Cole J., Herren T., Zuckerman B. Circulating catecholamine concentrations in cocaine-exposed neonates: A pilot study. Pediatrics 1991; 88: 481–485
  • Mitchell J. A., Hammer R. E. Effects of nicotine on oviductal blood flow and embryo development in the rat. J. Reprod. Fertil. 1985; 74: 71–76
  • Monheit A. G., Van Vunakis H., Key T. C., Resnik R. Maternal and fetal cardiovascular effects of nicotine infusion in pregnant sheep. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1983; 145: 290–296
  • Moore T. R., Sorg J., Miller L., Key T. C., Resnik R. Hemodynamic effects of intravenous cocaine on the pregnant ewe and fetus. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1986; 155: 883–888
  • Morgan B., Brake S. C., Hutchings D. E., Miller N., Gamagaris Z. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol during pregnancy in the rat: Effects on development of RNA, DNA and protein in offspring brain. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 1988; 31: 365–369
  • Morgan M. A., Silavin S. L., Randolph M., Payne G. G., Sheldon R. E., Fishburne J. I., Wentworth R. A., Nathanielsz P. W. Effect of intravenous cocaine on uterine blood flow in the gravid baboon. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol 1991; 164: 1021–1030
  • Morild I., Stajic M. Cocaine and fetal death. Forensic Sci. Int. 1990; 47: 181–189
  • Morishima A. Effects of cannabis and natural cannabinoids on chromosomes and ova. Marijuana Effects on the Endocrine and Reproductive Systems, M. C. Braude, J. P. Ludford. NIDA. 1984; 25–45, Res. Mongr. 44
  • Morrow R. J., Ritchie J. W., Bull S. B. Maternal cigarette smoking: The effects of umbilical and uterine blood flow velocity. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1988; 159: 1069–1071
  • Murthy N. V. A., Melville G. N., Wynter H. H. Contractile responses of uterine smooth muscle to acetylcholine and marijuana extract. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 1983; 21: 223–226
  • Nanda D., Feldman J., Delke I., Chintalapally S., Minkoff H. Syphilis among parturients at an inner city hospital: Association with cocaine use and implications for congenital syphilis rates. N. Y. State J. Med. 1990; 90: 488–490
  • National Institute on Drug Abuse. National Household Survey on Drug Abuse: Population Estimates 1991. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Washington, D.C. 1991
  • Nau H. Species differences in pharmacokinetics and drug teratogenesis. Environ. Health Perspect. 1986; 70: 113–129
  • Navarro H. A., Mills E., Seidler F. J., Baker F. E., Lappi S. E., Tayyeb M. I., Spencer J. R., Slotkin T. A. Prenatal nicotine exposure impairs beta-adrenergic function: Persistent chronotropic subsensitivity despite recovery from deficits in receptor binding. Brain Res. Bull. 1990; 25: 233–237
  • Neerhoff M. G., Mac Gregor S. N., Retzky S. S., Sullivan T. P. Cocaine abuse during pregnancy: Peripartum prevalence and perinatal outcome. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1989; 161: 633–638
  • Nishimura H., Nakai K. Developmental anomalies in offspring of pregnant mice treated with nicotine. Science 1958; 127: 877–878
  • Norman D. C., Chang M. P., Wong C. M., Branch B. J., Castle S., Taylor A. N. Changes with age in the proliferative response of splenic T cells from rats exposed to ethanol in utero. Alcoholism: Clin. Exp. Res. 1991; 15: 428–432
  • O'Connell C. M., Fried P. A. An investigation of prenatal cannabis exposure and minor physical anomalies in a low risk population. Neurobehav. Toxicol. 1984; 6: 345–350, Teratol
  • Odom L. F., Lampkin B. C., Tannous R., Buckley J. D., Hammond G. D. Acute monoblastic leukemia: A unique subtype—A review from the Childrens Cancer Study Group. Leuk. Res. 1990; 14: 1–10
  • Olegard R., Sabel K.-G., Aronsson M., Sandin B., Johansson P. R., Carlsson C., Kyllerman M., Iversen K., Hrbek A. Effects on the child of alcohol abuse during pregnancy. Acta Paediatr. Scand. 1979; 275: 112–121, (Suppl.)
  • O'Malley P. M., Bachman J. G., Johnston L. D. Period, age, and cohort effects on substance use among young Americans: A decade of change, 1976–86. Am. J. Public Health 1988; 78: 1315–1321
  • Ostrea E. M., Brady M., Gause S., Raymundo A. L., Stevens M. Drug screening of newborns by meconium analysis: A large-scale, prospective, epidemiologic study. Pediatrics 1992; 89: 107–113
  • Ostrea E. M., Chavez C. J. Perinatal problems (excluding neonatal withdrawal) in maternal drug addiction: A study of 830 cases. J. Pediatr. 1979; 94: 292–295
  • Ouellette E. M., Rosett H. L., Rosman N. P., Weiner L. Adverse effects on offspring of maternal alcohol abuse during pregnancy. N. Engl. J. Med. 1977; 297: 528–530
  • Paulson R. B., Shanfeld J., Prause L., Iranpour S., Paulson J. O. Pre- and post-conceptional tobacco effects on the CD-1 mouse fetus. J. Craniofac. Genet. Dev. Biol. 1991; 11: 48–58
  • Paulson R., Shanfeld J., Sachs L., Price T., Paulson J. Effect of smokeless tobacco on the development of the CD-1 mouse fetus. Teratology 1989; 40: 483–494
  • Perlow J. H., Schlossberg D. L., Strassner H. T. Intrapartum cocaine use: A case report. J. Reprod. Med. 1990; 35: 978–980
  • Peters D. A., Tang S. Sex-dependent biological changes following prenatal nicotine exposure in the rat. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 1982; 17: 1077–1082
  • Petitti D. B., Coleman C. Cocaine and the risk of low birth weight. Am. J. Public Health 1990; 80: 25–28
  • Philipp K., Pateisky N., Endler M. Effects of smoking on uteroplacental blood flow. Gynecol. Obstet. Invest. 1984; 17: 179–182
  • Qazi Q. H., Mariano E., Milman D. H., Beller E., Crombleholme W. Abnormalities in offspring associated with prenatal marihuana exposure. Dev. Pharmacol. Ther. 1985; 8: 141–148
  • Randall C. L., Ekblad U., Anton R. F. Perspectives on the pathophysiology of fetal alcohol syndrome. Alcoholism: Clin. Exp. Res. 1990; 14: 807–812
  • Rantakallio P. A follow-up study up to the age of 14 of children whose mothers smoked during pregnancy. Acta Paediatr. Scand. 1983; 72: 747–753
  • Reiffenstein R. J., Triggle C. R. Cocaine-induced supersensitivity in the human umbilical artery. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 1974; 52: 687–698
  • Resnik R., Conover W. B., Key T. C., Van Vunakis H. Uterine blood flow and catecholamine response to repetitive nicotine exposure in the pregnant ewe. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1985; 151: 885–891
  • Reznik G., Marquard G. Effect of cigarette smoke inhalation during pregnancy in Sprague-Dawley rats. J. Environ. Path. Toxicol. 1980; 4: 141–152
  • Reznik V. M., Anderson J., Griswold W. R., Segall M. L., Murphy J. L., Mendoza S. A. Successful Fibrinolytic treatment of arterial thrombosis and hypertension in a cocaine-exposed neonate. Pediatrics 1989; 84: 735–738
  • Ricalde A. A., Hammer R. P. Perinatal opiate treatment delays growth of cortical dendrites. Neurosci. Lett. 1990; 115: 137–143
  • Riesenfeld A., Siegel M. I., Mooney M. P., Seroky J. T., Taylor A. B. Effects of perinatal alcohol exposure and dietary calcium supplements on skeletal and dental growth in rats. Acta Anat. 1991; 140: 1–7
  • Riley E. P., Foss J. A. Exploratory behavior and locomotor activity: A failure to find effects in animals prenatally exposed to cocaine. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 1991a; 13: 553–558
  • Riley E. P., Foss J. A. The acquisition of passive avoidance, active avoidance, and spatial navigation tasks by animals prenatally exposed to cocaine. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 1991b; 13: 559–564
  • Robison L. L., Buckley J. D., Daigle A. E., Wells R., Benjamin D., Arthur D. C., Hammond G. D. Maternal drug use and risk of childhood nonlymphoblastic leukemia among offspring. An epidemiologic investigation implicating marijuana. Cancer 1989; 63: 1904–1911
  • Roe D. A., Little B. B., Bawdon R. E., Gilstrap L. C. Metabolism of cocaine by human placentas: Implications for fetal exposure. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1990; 163: 715–718
  • Rolfs R. T., Goldberg M., Sharrar R. G. Risk factors for syphilis: Cocaine use and prostitution. Am. J. Public Health 1990; 80: 853–857
  • Rosenkrantz H., Grant R. J., Fleischman R. W., Baker J. R. Marihuana-induced embryotoxicity in the rabbit. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 1986; 7: 236–243
  • Rosenstein B. J., Wheeler J. S., Heid P. L. Congenital renal abnormalities in infants with in utero cocaine exposure. J. Urol. 1990; 144: 110–112
  • Rosenthal E. When a pregnant woman drinks. New York Times Magazine. February 4, 1990
  • Rosett H. L., Weiner L., Zuckerman B., McKinlay S., Edelin K. C. Reduction of alcohol consumption during pregnancy with benefits to the newborn. Alcoholism: Clin. Exp. Res. 1980; 4: 178–184
  • Rush D., Callahan K. R. Exposure to passive cigarette smoking and child development. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1989; 562: 74–104
  • Rush D., Kristal A., Blanc W., Navarro C., Chauhan PC., Campbell Brown M., Rosso P., Winick M., Brasel J., Naeye R., Susser M. The effects of maternal cigarette smoking on placental morphology, histomorphometry, and biochemistry. Am. J. Perinatol. 1986; 3: 263–272
  • Russell M. Clinical implications of recent research on the fetal alcohol syndrome. Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med. 1991; 67: 207–222
  • Saad A. Y. Postnatal effects of nicotine on incisor development of albino mouse. J. Oral Pathol. Med. 1990; 19: 426–429
  • Saad A. Y. Postnatal effects of nicotine on first molar development in the CD-1 mouse. Acta Anal. 1991; 140: 269–272
  • Saad A. Y., Gartner L. P., Hiatt J. L. Teratogenic effects of nicotine on palate formation in mice. Biol. Struct. Morphog. 1990–91; 3: 31–35
  • Salamy A., Eldredge L., Anderson J., Bull D. Brain-stem transmission time in infants exposed to cocaine in utero. J. Pediatr. 1990; 117: 627–629
  • Scalzo F. M., Ali S. F., Frambes N. A., Spear L. P. Weanling rats exposed prenatally to cocaine exhibit an increase in striatal D2 dopamine binding associated with an increase in ligand affinity. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 1990; 37: 371–373
  • Schenker S., Becker H. C., Randall C. L., Phillips D. K., Baskin G. S., Henderson G. I. Fetal alcohol syndrome: Current status of pathogenesis. Alcoholism: Clin. Exp. Res. 1990; 14: 635–647
  • Scher M. S., Richardson G. A., Coble P. A., Day N. L., Stoffer D. S. The effects of prenatal alcohol and marijuana exposure: Disturbances in neonatal sleep cycling and arousal. Pediatr. Res. 1988; 24: 101–105
  • Schutzman D. L., Frankenfield-Chernicoff M., Clatterbaugh H. E., Singer J. Incidence of intrauterine cocaine exposure in a suburban setting. Pediatrics 1991; 88: 825–827
  • Seidman D. S., Ever-Hadani P., Gale R. Effect of maternal smoking and age on congenital anomalies. Obstet. Gynecol. 1990; 76: 1046–1050
  • Shaw G. M., Malcoe L. H., Lammer E. J., Swan S. H. Maternal use of cocaine during pregnancy and congenital cardiac anomalies. J. Pediatr. 1991; 118: 167–168
  • Shih L., Cone-Wesson B., Reddix B. Effects of maternal cocaine abuse on the neonatal auditory system. Int. J. Pediatr. Otorhinolaryngol. 1988; 15: 245–251
  • Shiono P. H., Klebanoff M. A., Berendes H. W. Congenital malformations and maternal smoking during pregnancy. Teratology 1986; 34: 65–71
  • Simm B., Murdoch R. N. The role of acetate in alcohol-induced alterations of uterine glucose metabolism in the mouse during pregnancy. Life Sci. 1990; 47: 1051–1058
  • Sindberg-Eriksen P., Marsal K. Circulatory changes in the fetal aorta after maternal smoking. Br. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1987; 94: 301–305
  • Slotkin T. A., Navarro H. A., McCook E. C., Seidler F. J. Fetal nicotine exposure produces postnatal up-regulation of adenylate cyclase activity in peripheral tissues. Life Sci. 1990; 47: 1561–1567
  • Smith D. W., Jones K. L., Hanson J. W. Perspectives on the cause and frequency of the fetal alcohol syndrome. Ann N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1976; 273: 138–139
  • Smith G. N., Brien J. F., Homan J., Carmichael L., Patrick J. Indomethacin reversal of ethanol-induced suppression of ovine fetal breathing movements and relationship to prostaglandin E2. J. Dev. Physiol. 1990a; 14: 29–35
  • Smith G. N., Brien J. F., Homan J., Carmichael L., Treissman D., Patrick J. Effect of ethanol on ovine fetal and maternal plasma prostaglandin E2. concentrations and fetal breathing movements. J. Dev. Physiol. 1990b; 14: 23–28
  • Smith G. N., Patrick J., Sinervo K. R., Brien J. F. Effects of ethanol exposure on the embryo-fetus: Experimental considerations, mechanisms, and the role of prostaglandins. Can. J. Physiol Pharmacol. 1991; 69: 550–569
  • Smith I. E., Coles C. D., Lancaster J., Fernhoff P. M., Falek A. The effect of volume and duration of prenatal ethanol exposure on neonatal physical and behavioral development. Neurobehav. Toxicol. Teratol. 1986; 8: 375–381
  • Smith R. F., Mattran K. M., Kurkjian M. F., Kurtz S. L. Alterations in offspring behavior induced by chronic prenatal cocaine dosing. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 1989; 11: 35–38
  • Sobrian S. K., Burton L. E., Robinson N. L., Ashe W. K., James H., Stokes D. L., Turner L. M. Neurobehavioral and immunological effects of prenatal cocaine exposure in rat. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 1990; 35: 617–629
  • Sokol R. J. Alcohol and abnormal outcomes of pregnancy. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 1981; 125: 143–148
  • Sokol R. J., Clarren S. K. Guidelines for use of terminology describing the impact of prenatal alcohol on the offspring. Alcoholism: Clin. Exp. Res. 1989; 13: 597–598
  • Sokol R. J., Miller S. I., Reed G. Alcohol abuse during pregnancy. An epidemiologic study. Alcoholism: Clin. Exp. Res. 1980; 4: 135–145
  • Spear L. P., Frambes N. A., Kirstein C. L. Fetal and maternal brain and plasma levels of cocaine and benzoylecgonine following chronic subcutaneous administration of cocaine during gestation in rats. Psychopharmacology 1989a; 97: 427–431
  • Spear L. P., Kirstein C. L., Bell J., Yoottanasumpun V., Greenbaum R., O'Shea J., Hoffman H., Spear N. E. Effects of prenatal cocaine exposure on behavior during the early postnatal period. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 1989b; 11: 57–63
  • Spear L. P., Kirstein C. L., Frambes N. A. Cocaine effects on the developing central nervous system: Behavioral, psychopharmacological, and neurochemical studies. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1989c; 562: 290–307
  • Spires M. C., Gordon E. F., Choudhuri M., Maldonado E., Chan R. Intracranial hemorrhage in a neonate following prenatal cocaine exposure. Pediatr. Neurol. 1989; 5: 324–326
  • Staley N. A., Tobin J. D. Reversible effects of ethanol in utero on cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum of guinea pig offspring. Cardiovasc. Res. 1991; 25: 27–30
  • Streissguth A. P., Clarren S. K., Jones K. J. Natural history of the fetal alcohol syndrome: A 10-year follow-up of eleven patients. Lancet 1985; 2: 85–91
  • Streissguth A. P., Landesman-Dwyer S., Martin J. C., Smith D. W. Teratogenic effects of alcohol in humans and laboratory animals. Science 1980; 209: 353–361
  • Sulaiman N. D., Florey C., Du Taylor V. D. J., Ogston S. A. Alcohol consumption in Dundee primigravidas and its effects on outcome of pregnancy. Br. Med. J. 1988; 296: 1500–1503
  • Sulik K. K. Critical periods for alcohol teratogenesis in mice, with special reference to the gastrulation stage of embryogenesis. Mechanisms of Alcohol Damage in Utero, R. Porter, M. O'Conner, J. Whelan. Pitman, London 1984; 124–141, Ciba Found. Symp. 105.
  • Sulik K. K., Cook C. S., Webster W. S. Teratogens and craniofacial malformations: Relationships to cell death. Development (Suppl.) 1988; 103: 213–232
  • Sulik K. K., Johnston M. C., Webb M. A. Fetal alcohol syndrome: Embryogenesis in a mouse model. Science 1981; 214: 936–938
  • Suzuki K., Minei L. J., Johnson E. E. Effects of nicotine upon uterine blood flow in the pregnant rhesus monkey. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1980; 136: 1009–1013
  • Szeto H. H. Maternal-fetal pharmacokinetics and fetal dose-response relationships. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1989; 562: 42–55
  • Tachi N., Aoyama M. Postnatal growth in rats prenatally exposed to cigarette smoke or carbon monoxide. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 1990; 45: 641–648
  • Tabor B. L., Soffici A. R., Smith-Wallace T., Yonekura M. L. The effect of maternal cocaine use on the fetus: Changes in antepartum fetal heart rate tracings. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1991; 165: 1278–1281
  • Taylor B. Prevention of pediatric pulmonary problems: The importance of maternal smoking. Lung (Suppl.) 1990; 168: 327–332
  • Taylor B., Wadsworth J. Maternal smoking during pregnancy and lower respiratory tract illness in early life. Arch. Dis. Child. 1987; 62: 786–791
  • Telsey A. M., Merrit A., Dixon S. D. Cocaine exposure in a term neonate: Necrotizing enterocolitis as a complication. Clin. Pediatr. 1988; 27: 547–550
  • Tennes K., Avitable N., Blackard C., Boyles C., Hassoun B., Holmes L., Kreye M. Marijuana: Prenatal and postnatal exposure in the human. Consequences of Maternal Drug Abuse, T. M. Pinkert, 1985; 48–60, NIDA Res. Monogr. 59
  • Teske M. P., Trese M. T. Retinopathy of prematurity-like fundus and persistent hyperplastic primary vitreous associated with maternal cocaine use. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 1987; 103: 719–720
  • Tichenor G. A., Ahn S. S., Lazerson J. Cocaine exposure in a newborn. Hasp. Pract. 1991; 26(31)34
  • Tomasi A. M., Lee H., Myers S. The hemodynamic response of the conscious pregnant guinea pig to nicotine. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1987; 156: 1015–1018
  • Van De Bor M., Walther F. J., Ebrahimi M. Decreased cardiac output in infants of mothers who abused cocaine. Pediatrics 1990a; 85: 30–32
  • Van De Bor M., Walther F. J., Sims M. E. Increased cerebral blood flow velocity in infants of mothers who abuse cocaine. Pediatrics 1990b; 85: 733–736
  • Van Den Eeden S. K., Karagas M. R., Daling J. R., Vaughan T. L. A case-control study of maternal smoking and congenital malformations. Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol. 1990; 4: 147–155
  • Vavrousek-Jakuba E. M., Baker R. A., Shoemaker W. J. Effect of ethanol on maternal and offspring characteristics: Comparison of three liquid diet formulations fed during gestation. Alcoholism: Clin. Exp. Res. 1991; 15: 129–135
  • Visnjevac V., Mikov M. Smoking and carboxyhaemoglobin concentrations in mothers and their newborn infants. Hum. Toxicol. 1986; 5: 175–177
  • Walpole I., Zubrick S., Pontre J. Is there a fetal effect with low to moderate alcohol use before or during pregnancy?. J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health 1990; 44: 297–301
  • Walters D. E., Carr L. A. Changes in brain catecholamine mechanisms following perinatal exposure to marihuana. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 1986; 25: 763–768
  • Walters D. E., Carr L. A. Perinatal exposure to cannabinoids alters neurochemical development in rat brain. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 1988; 29: 213–216
  • Wang C., Pasulka P., Perry B., Pizzi W. J., Schnoll S. H. Effect of perinatal exposure to methadone on brain opioid and α2-adrenergic receptors. Neurobehav. Toxicol. Teratol. 1986; 8: 399–402
  • Wang C. H., Schnoll S. H. Prenatal cocaine use associated with down regulation of receptors in human placenta. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 1987; 9: 301–304
  • Wang N. S., Chen M. F., Schraufnagel D. E., Yao Y. T. The cumulative scanning electron microscopic changes in baby mouse lungs following prenatal and postnatal exposures to nicotine. J. Pathol. 1984; 144: 89–100
  • Webster W. S., Brown- Woodman P. D. Cocaine as a cause of congenital malformations of vascular origin: Experimental evidence in the rat. Teratology 1990; 41: 689–697
  • Weinberg J., D'Alquen G., Bezio S. Interactive effects of ethanol intake and maternal nutritional status on skeletal development of fetal rats. Alcohol 1990; 7: 383–388
  • West J. R., Goodlett C. R., Bonthius D. J., Hamre K. M., Marcussen B. L. Cell population depletion associated with fetal alcohol brain damage: Mechanisms of BAC-dependent cell loss. Alcoholism: Clin. Exp. Res. 1990; 14: 813–818
  • Wigal S. B., Amsel A., Wilcox R. E. Fetal ethanol exposure diminishes hippocampal beta-adrenergic receptor density while sparing muscarinic receptors during development. Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res. 1990; 55: 161–169
  • Wiggins R. C., Ruiz B. Development under the influence of cocaine. I. A comparison of the effects of daily cocaine treatment and resultant undernutrition on pregnancy and early growth in a large population of rats. Metab. Brain Dis. 1990a; 5: 85–99
  • Wiggins R. C., Ruiz B. Development under the influence of cocaine, II. Comparison of the effects of maternal cocaine and associated undernutrition on brain myelin development in the offspring. Metab. Brain Dis. 1990b; 5: 101–109
  • Wilcox A. J., Weinberg C. R., Baird D. D. Risk factors for early pregnancy loss. Epidemiology 1990; 1: 382–385
  • Witter F. R., Niebyl J. R. Marijuana use in pregnancy and pregnancy outcome. Am. J. Perinatal. 1990; 7: 36–38
  • Wood R. W. Animal models of drug self-administration by smoking. Research Findings on Smoking of Abused Substances, C. N. Chiang, R. L. Hawks, 1990; 159–171, NIDA Res. Monogr. 99
  • Woods J. R., Plessinger M. A., Clark K. E. Effect of cocaine on uterine blood flow and fetal oxygenation. JAMA 1987; 257: 957–961
  • Wright J. T., Barrison I. G., Lewis I. G., Mac Rae K. D., Waterson E. J., Toplis P. J., Gordon M. G., Morris N. F., Murray- Lyon I. M. Alcohol consumption, pregnancy, and low birthweight. Lancet 1983; 1: 663–665
  • Zagon I. S., McLaughlin P. J., Weaver D. J., Zagon E. Opiates, endorphins and the developing organism: A comprehensive bibliography. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 1982; 6: 439–479
  • Zimmerman S., Zimmerman A. M. Genetic effects of marijuana. Int. J. Addict 1990–91; 25: 19–33
  • Zuckerman B., Bresnahan K. Developmental and behavioral consequences of prenatal drug and alcohol exposure. Pediatr. Clin. North Am. 1991; 38: 1387–1406
  • Zuckerman B., Frank D. A., Hingson R., Amaro H., Levenson S. M., Kayne H., Parker S., Vinci R., Aboagye K., Fried L. E., Cabral H., Timperi R., Bauchner H. Effects of maternal marijuana and cocaine use on fetal growth. N. Engl. J. Med. 1989; 320: 762–768

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.