NSAIDs do not require the presence of a carboxylic acid to exert their anti-inflammatory effect – why do we keep using it?

References

• Smalley WE, Ray WA, Daugherty JR, Griffin MR. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and the incidence of hospitalizations for peptic ulcer disease in elderly persons. Am J Epidemiol 1995;141:539–45
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simon LS. Biologic effects of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Curr Opin Rheumatol 1997;9:178–82
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zochling J, van der Heijde D, Dougados M, Braun J. Current evidence for the management of ankylosing spondylitis: a systematic literature review for the ASAS/EULAR management recommendations in ankylosing spondylitis. Ann Rheum Dis 2006;65:423–32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kean WF, Buchanan WW. The use of NSAIDs in rheumatic disorders 2005: a global perspective. Inflammopharmacology 2005;13:343–70
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schnitzer TJ. Update of ACR guidelines for osteoarthritis: role of the coxibs. J Pain Symptom Manage 2002;23:S24S30
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Connolly TP. Cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors in gynecologic practice. Clin Med Res 2003;1:105–10
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ong KS, Seymour RA. Maximizing the safety of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug use for postoperative dental pain: an evidence-based approach. Anesth Prog 2003;50:62–74
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lipton RB, Stewart WF, Ryan RE, et al. Efficacy and safety of acetaminophen, aspirin, and caffeine in alleviating migraine headache pain: three double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trials. Arch Neurol 1998;55:210–17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallace JL. Prostaglandins, NSAIDs, and gastric mucosal protection: why doesn't the stomach digest itself? Physiol Rev 2008;88:1547–65
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yeomans ND, Hawkey CJ, Brailsford W, Naesdal J. Gastroduodenal toxicity of low-dose acetylsalicylic acid: a comparison with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Curr Med Res Opin 2009;25:2785–93
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higuchi K, Umegaki E, Watanabe T, et al. Present status and strategy of NSAIDs-induced small bowel injury. J Gastroenterol 2009;44:879–88
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhandari SV, Kailash GB, Mayuresh KR, et al. Design, synthesis and evaluation of antiinflammatory, analgesic and ulcerogenicity studies of novel S-substituted phenacyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole-2-thiol and Schiff bases of diclofenac acid as nonulcerogenic derivatives. Bioorg Med Chem 2008;16:1822–31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalgutkar AS, Crews BC, Saleh S, et al. Indolyl esters and amides related to indomethacin are selective COX-2 inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem 2005;13:6810–22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harman CA, Turman MV, Kozak KR, et al. Sturctural basis of enantioselective inhibition of cyclooxygenase-1 S-alpha-substituted indomethacin ethanolamides. J Biol Chem 2007;282:28096–105
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalgutkar AS, Marnett AB, Crews BC, et al. Ester and amide derivatives of the nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug, indomethacin, as selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors. J Med Chem 2000;43:2860–70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abdellatif KRA, Chowdhury MA, Dong Y, et al. Dinitroglyceryl and diazen-1-ium-1,2-diolated nitric oxide donor ester prodrugs of aspirin, indomethacin and ibuprofen: synthesis, biological evaluation and nitric oxide release studies. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2009;19:3014–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winter CA, Risley EA, Nuss GW. Carrageenin-induced edema in hind paw of the rat as an assay for antiiflammatory drugs. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1962;111:544–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piquettemiller M, Jamali F. Influence of severity of inflammation on the disposition kinetics of propranolol enantiomers in ketoprofen-treated and untreated adjuvant arthritis. Drug Metab Dispos 1995;23:240–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ermondi G, Caron G, Lawrence R, Longo D. Docking studies on NSAID/COX-2 isozyme complexes using contact statistics analysis. J Comput Aided Mol Des 2004;18:683–96
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steele VE, Rao CV, Zhang Y, et al. Chemopreventive efficacy of naproxen and nitric oxide-naproxen in rodent models of colon, urinary bladder, and mammary cancers. Cancer Prev Res 2009;2:951–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tinsley HN, Grizzle WE, Abadi A, et al. New NSAID targets and derivatives for colorectal cancer chemoprevention. Recent Results Cancer Res 2013;191:105–20
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cocco MT, Congiu C, Onnis V, et al. Synthesis of new 2-arylamino-6-trifluoromethylpyridine-3-carboxylic acid derivatives and investigation of their analgesic activity. Bioorg Med Chem 2004;12:4169–77
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallace JL, Caliendo G, Santagada V, Cirino G. Markedly reduced toxicity of a hydrogen sulphide-releasing derivative of naproxen (ATB-346). Br J Pharmacol 2010;159:1236–46
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lichtenberger LM, Romero JJ, Dial EJ. Surface phospholipids in gastric injury and protection when a selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor (Coxib) is used in combination with aspirin. Br J Pharmacol 2007;150:913–19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallace JL, McKnight W, Reuter BK, Vergnolle N. NSAID-induced gastric damage in rats: requirement for inhibition of both cyclooxygenase 1 and 2. Gastroenterology 2000;119:706–14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li L, Rossoni G, Sparatore A, et al. Anti-inflammatory and gastrointestinal effects of a novel diclofenac derivative. Free Radic Biol Med 2007;42:706–19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen K, Nezu R, Inouea M, et al. Beneficial effects of growth hormone combined with parenteral nutrition in the management of inflammatory bowel disease: an experimental study. Surgery 1997;121:212–18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar