1,366
Views
272
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Article

An overview of mycotoxin contamination in foods and its implications for human health

, , , , &
Pages 3-26 | Received 30 Nov 2009, Accepted 06 Jan 2010, Published online: 26 Feb 2010

References

  • Abbas HK, Cartwright RD, Xie W, Mirocha CJ, Richard JL, Dvorak TJ, Sciumbato GL, Shier WT. (1999). Mycotoxin production by Fusarium proliferatum isolates from rice with Fusarium sheath rot disease. Mycopathologia. 147:97–104.
  • Abbas HK, Cartwright RD, Xie W, Shier WT. (2006). Aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination of corn (maize, Zea mays) hybrids in Arkansas. Crop Protec. 25:1–9.
  • Abbas HK, Mirocha CJ, Meronuck RA, Pokorny JD, Gould SL, Kommedahl T. (1988). Mycotoxins and Fusarium spp. associated with infected ears of corn in Minnesota. Appl Environ Microbiol. 54:1930–1933.
  • Abbas HK, Shier WT. (2010). Mycotoxin contamination of agricultural products in the southern United States and approaches to reducing it from pre-harvest to final food products. In: Appell M, Kendra D, Trucksess MW, eds. Mycotoxin Prevention and Control in Agriculture. American Chemical Society Symposium Series. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Abbas HK, Shier WT, Cartwright RD. (2007). Effect of temperature, rainfall and planting date on aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination in commercial Bt and non-Bt corn hybrids in Arkansas. Phytoprotection. 88:41–50.
  • Abbas HK, Williams WP, Windham GL, Pringle III HC, Xie W, Shier WT. (2002). Aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination of commercial corn (Zea mays) hybrids in Mississippi. J Agric Food Chem. 50:5246–5254.
  • Abdulkadar AHW, Al-Ali AA, Al-Kildi AM, Al-Jedah JH. (2004). Mycotoxins in food products available in Qatar. Food Cont. 15:543–548.
  • Abdullah N, Nawawi A, Othman I. (1998). Survey of fungal counts and national occurrence of aflatoxin in Malaysian starch-based foods. Mycopathologia. 143:53–58.
  • Abid S, Hassen W, Achour A, Skhiri H, Maaroufi K, Ellouz F, Creppy E, Bacha H. (2003). Ochratoxin A and human chronic nephropathy in Tunisia: is the situation endemic?. Human Exp Toxicol. 22:77–84.
  • Abou-Karam M, Abbas HK, Shier WT. (2004). N-Fatty acylation of hydrolyzed fumonisin B1, but not of intact fumonisin B1, strongly enhances in vitro mammalian toxicity. J Toxicol Toxin Rev. 23:123–151.
  • Adebajo LO, Idowu AA. (1994). Mycoflora and aflatoxin in a West African corn-groundnut based convenience food. Mycopathologia. 126:21–26.
  • Akerstrand K, Molander A, Andersson A, Nilsson G. (1976). Occurrence of moulds and mycotoxins in frozen blueberries. Vår Föda. 28:197–200.
  • Alborzi S, Pourabbas B, Rashidi M, Astaneh B. (2006). Aflatoxin M1 contamination in pasteurized milk in Shiraz (south of Iran). Food Control. 17: 582–584.
  • Ali N. (2000). Aflatoxins in Malaysian food. Mycotoxins. 50:31–35.
  • Almeida AP, Fonseca H, Fancelli AL, Direito GM, Ortega EM, Corra B. (2002). Mycoflora and fumonisin contamination in Brazilian corn from sowing to harvest. J Agric Food Chem. 50:3877–3882.
  • Altuntas HD, Hamurcu Z, İmamoglu N, Liman BC. (2003). Effects of ochratoxin A on micronucleus frequency in human lymphocytes. Nahrung/Food. 47(1):33–35.
  • Amra H. (2007). Natural occurrence of some mycotoxins in local and imported corn grains (Zea mays L.) in Egypt. Toxicol Lett. 172 (Suppl 1):S205.
  • Andersson AE, Josefsson G, Nilsson G, Akerstrand K. (1977). Mögelsvampar och Patulin I Frukt Och Bär. Vår Föda. 8:292–298.
  • Arafat W, Kern D, Dirheimer G. (1985). Inhibition of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases by the mycotoxin patulin. Chemico-Biol Intera. 56:333–349.
  • Ares AJL, Ferro ARC, Ramirez CL, Gonzalez JM. (2004). Fusarium graminearum Schwabe, a maize root and stalk rot pathogen isolated from lodged plants in northwest Spain. Span J Agric Res. 2:249–252.
  • Ashoor SH, Chu SS. (1973). Inhibition of alcohol and lactic dehydrogenase by patulin and penicillic acid in vitro. Food Cosmet Toxicol. 11:617–624.
  • Avantaggio G, Quaranta F, Desidero E, Visconti A. (2002). Fumonisin contamination of maize hybrids visibly damaged by Sesamia. J Sci Food Agric. 83:13–18.
  • Awuah RT, Kpodo KA. (1996). High incidence of Aspergillus flavus and aflatoxins in stored groundnut in Ghana and the use of a microbial assay to assess the inhibitory effects of plant extracts on aflatoxin synthesis. Mycopathologia. 134(2):109–114.
  • Ayalew A, Fehrmann H, Lepschy J, Beck R, Abate D. (2006). Natural occurrence of mycotoxins in staple cereals from Ethiopia. Mycopathologia. 162:57–63.
  • Aydin A, Erkan ME, Baokaya R, Ciftcioglu G. (2007). Determination of Aflatoxin B1 levels in powdered red pepper. Food Cont. 18:1015–1018.
  • Aydin A, Gunsen U, Demirel S. (2008). Total aflatoxin, aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A levels in Turkish Wheat flour. J Food Drug Anal. 16:48–53.
  • Baert K, De Meulenaer B, Kamala A, Kasase C, Devlieghere F. (2006). Occurrence of patulin in organic, conventional, and hand crafted apple juices marketed in Belgium. J Food Protec. 69:1371–1378.
  • Bankole SA, Adebanjo A. (2003). Mycotoxins in food in West Africa: current situation and possibilities of controlling it. Afr J Biotechnol. 2(9):254–263.
  • Bankole SA, Mabekoje OO. (2004). Occurrence of aflatoxins and fumonisins in preharvest maize from southwestern Nigeria. Food Addit Contam. 21:251–255.
  • Bankole SA, Ogunsanwo BM, Mabekoje OO. (2004). Natural occurrence of moulds and aflatoxin B1 in melon seeds from markets in Nigeria. Food Chem Toxicol. 42:1309–1314.
  • Barro N, Quattara CA, Nikiema PA, Quattara AS, Traore AS. (2002). Microbial quality assessment of some street food widely consumed in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. Sante. 12:369–374.
  • Bayman P, Baker JL, Doster MA, Michailides TJ, Mahoney NE. (2002). Ochratoxin production by the Aspergillus ochraceus group and Aspergillus alliaceus. Appl Environ Microbiol. 68:2326–2329.
  • Beardall JM, Miller JD. (1994). Disease in humans with mycotoxins as possible causes. In: Miller JD, Trenholm HL, eds. Mycotoxins in Grains: Compounds Other Than Aflatoxin. St. Paul, MN: Eagan Press, pp. 487–539.
  • Belay ED, Bresee JS, Holman RC, Khan AS, Shahriari A, Schonberger LB. (1999). Reye’s syndrome in the United States from 1981 through 1997. N Engl J Med. 340:1377–1382.
  • Beretta B, Gaiaschi A, Galli CL, Restani P. (2000). Patulin evaluation in apple-based food: Occurrence and safety evaluation. Food Addit Contam. 17:399–406.
  • Bezuidenhout SC, Gelderblom WCA, Gorst-Allman CP, Horak RM, Marasas WFO, Spietzeller G, Vleggaar R. (1988). Structure elucidation of the fumonisins, mycotoxins from Fusarium moniliforme. J Chem Soc Chem Commun. 743–745.
  • Bhat RV, Ramakrishna Y, Beedu SR, Munshi KL. (1989). Outbreak of trichothecene mycotoxicosis associated with consumption of mould-damaged wheat products in Kashmir Valley, India. Lancet. 1:35–37.
  • Bhat RV, Shetty PH, Amruth RP, Sudershan RV. (1997). A food borne disease outbreak due to the consumption of moldy sorghum and maize containing fumonisin mycotoxins. J Clin Toxicol. 35:249–255.
  • Bhat RV, Vasanthi S. (2003). Food safety in food security and food trade: mycotoxin food safety risk in developing countries. Vision 2020 for Food, Agriculture, and the Environment, Focus 10. http://www.ifpri.org/2020/focus/focus10/focus10_03.pdf. Accessed on 04.05.2008.
  • Blaney BJ, Moore CJ, Tyler AL. (1987). The mycotoxins—4-deoxynivalenol, zearalenone and aflatoxin—in weather-damaged wheat harvested 1983–1985 in south-eastern Queensland. Austr J Agric Res. 38:993–1000.
  • Boonzaaijer G, Bobeldijk I, van Osenbruggen WA. (2005). Analysis of patulin in Dutch food, an evaluation of a SPE based method. Food Cont. 16:587–591.
  • Bourdiol D, Escoula L, Salvayre R. (1990). Effect of patulin on microbicidal activity of mouse peritoneal macrophages. Food Chem Toxicol. 28:29–33.
  • Brackett RE, Marth EH. (1979). Patulin in apple juice from roadside stands in Wisconsin. J Food Protec. 42(11):862–863.
  • Brian PW, Elson GW, Lowe D. (1956). Production of patulin in apple fruits by Penicillium expansum. Nature. 178:263–264.
  • Broggi LE, Pacin AM, Gasparovic A, Sacchi C, Rothermel A, Gallay A, Resnik S. (2007). Natural occurrence of aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins and zearalenone in maize from Entre Rios Province, Argentina. Mycotoxin Res. 23(2):59–64.
  • Bryden WL. (2007). Mycotoxins in the food chain: human health implications. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 16:95–101.
  • Bucci T, Hansen DK, LaBorde JB. (1996). Leucoencephalomalacia and hemorrhage in the brain of rabbits gavaged with mycotoxin fumonisin B1. Nat Toxins. 4:51–52.
  • Buchanan JR, Sommer NF, Fortlage RJ, Maxie EC, Mitchell FG, Hseih DPH. (1974). Patulin from Penicillium expansum in stone fruits and pears. J Am Soc Hortic Sci. 99(3):262–265.
  • Bunge I, Heller K, Roschenthaler R. (1979). Isolation and purification of ochratoxin. A Z Lebensm Unters Forsch. 168:457–458.
  • Burda K. (1992). Incidence of patulin in apple, pear, and mixed fruit products marketed in New South Wales. J Food Protec. 55:796–798.
  • Caldas ED, Silva ACS. (2007). Mycotoxins in corn-based food products consumed in Brazil: an exposure assessment for fumonisins. J Agric Food Chem. 55:7974–7980.
  • Canas P, Aranda M. (1996). Decontamination and inhibition of patulin-induced cytotoxicity. Environ Toxicol Water Qual. 11:249–253.
  • Candlish AAG, Pearson SM, Aidoo KE, Smith JE, Kell B, Irvine H. (2001). A survey of ethnic foods for microbial quality and aflatoxin content. Food Addit Contam. 18:129–136.
  • Castegaro M, Barsch H, Chernozemsky I. (1987). Endemic nephropathy and urinary tract tumors in the Balkans. Cancer Res. 47:3606–3609.
  • Celli MG, Coelho AR, Wosiacki G, Boscolo M, Cruz CHG. (2009). Patulin determination in apples with rotten areas. World Mycot J. 2:279–283.
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2004). Outbreak of aflatoxin poisoning-eastern and central provinces, Kenya, January–July. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 53(34):790–793. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/hsb/chemicals/mmwr-aflatoxin.pdf (Accessed March 13, 2006).
  • Chatterji D, Mukherji SK. (1994). Contamination of Indian maize with fumonisin B1 and its effects on chicken macrophage. Lett Appl Microbiol. 18:251–253.
  • Cheraghali AM, Mohammadi HR, Amirahmadi M, Yazdanpanah H, Abouhossain G, Zamaian F. (2005). Incidence of patulin contamination in apple juice produced in Iran. Food Cont. 16:165–167.
  • Cho SH, Lee CH, Jang MR, Son YW, Lee SM, Choi IS, Kim SH, Kim DB. (2008). Aflatoxins contamination in spices and processed spice products commercialized in Korea. Food Chem. 107:1283–1288.
  • Chulze SN, Maria LR, Farnochi MC, Pascale M, Visconti A, March G. (1996). Fusarium and Fumonisin occurrence in Argentinean corn at different ear maturity stages. J Agric Food Chem. 44:2797–2801.
  • Ciegler A, Becwith AC, Jackson LK. (1976). Teratogenicity of patulin and patulin adducts formed with cysteine. Appl Environ Microbiol. 31:664–667.
  • Ciegler A, Kadis S, Ajl SJ. (1971). Microbial Toxins, Vol. VI: Fungal Toxins. New York, NY: Academic Press.
  • Cirillo T, Ritiemi A, Galvano F, Amodio R. (2003). Natural co-occurrence of deoxynivalenol and fumonisins B1 and B2 in Italian marketed food stuffs. Food Addit Contam. 20:567–571.
  • Cole RJ, Doner JW, Holbrook CC. (1995). Advances in mycotoxin elimination and resistance. In: Pattee HE, Stalker HT, eds. Advances in Peanut Science. Stillwater, OK: American Peanut Research and Education Society, pp. 456–474.
  • Čoncova E, Laciakova A, Štyriak I, Czerwiecki L, Wilczyska G. (2006). Fungal contamination and the levels of mycotoxins (DON and OTA) in cereal samples from Poland and East Slovakia. Czech J Food Sci. 24(1):33–40.
  • Corbett D. (2003). Patulin-UK producers perspective. In: Patulin Technical Symposium. February 18–19, 2003; Kissimmee, Fla. Summit, IL: National Center for Food Safety and Technology.
  • Council for Agricultural Science and Technology. (2003). Mycotoxins: risks in plant, animal, and human systems. Ames, IA. Task Force Report. 139.
  • Creppy EE. (1999). Human ochratoxicosis. J Toxicol Toxin Rev. 18:277–293.
  • Crespi CL, Penman BW, Steimel DT, Gelboin HV, Gonzales FJ. (1991). The development of a human cell line stably expressing human CYP3A3: role in the metabolic activation of aflatoxin B1 and comparison to CYP1A2 and CYP2A3. Carcinogenesis. 12:255–259.
  • da Silva JB, Pozzi CR, Mallozzi MAB. Ortega EM, Correa B. (2000). Mycoflora and occurrence of aflatoxin B1 and fumonisin B1 during storage of Brazilian sorghum. J Agric Food Chem. 48:4352–4356.
  • Daele CM, Eggermont E. (1994). Reye’s syndrome. Brit Med J. 308:919–920.
  • Dashti B. (2005). Screening of mycotoxin contamination in food in Kuwait. Abstracts & Program. The Second Asian Conference on Plant Pathology 2005, 25–28 June. Singapore: National University of Singapore, p. 113.
  • Dawlatana M, Coker RD, Nagler MJ, Wild CP, Hassan MS, Blunden G. (2002). The occurrence of mycotoxins in key commodities in Bangladesh: surveillance results from 1993 to 1995. J Nat Toxins. 11:379–386.
  • De Koe WJ. (1999). Regulations of the European Union for mycotoxins in foods. Arh Hig Rada Toksikol. 50:37–46.
  • De Vries HR, Maxwell SM, Hendrickse RG. (1990). Aflatoxin excretion in children with kwashiorkor or marasmic kwashiorkor: clinical investigation. Mycopathologia. 110:19.
  • Deger GE. (1976). Aflatoxin—human colon carcinogenesis? Ann Intern Med. 85:204–205.
  • Delage N, Harlingue A, Ceccaldi BC, Bompeix G. (2003). Occurrence of mycotoxins in fruit juices and wine. Food Cont. 14:225–227.
  • Demirci M, Arici M, Gumus T. (2003). Presence of patulin in fruit and fruit juices produced in Turkey. Ernaehrungs-Umschau. 50(7):262–263.
  • Desjardins AE, Manandha, G, Plattner RD, Maragos CM, Shrestha K, McCormick SP. (2000). Occurrence of Fusarium species and mycotoxins in Nepalese maize and wheat and the effect of traditional processing methods on mycotoxin levels. J Agric Food Chem. 48:1377–1383.
  • Devi KT, Mayo MA, Reddy G, Emmanuel KE, Larondelle Y, Reddy DVR. (2001). Occurrence of ochratoxin A in black pepper, coriander, ginger and turmeric in India. Food Addit Contam. 18(9):830–835.
  • Devi KT, Mayo MA, Reddy G, Reddy SV, Delfosse P, Reddy DVR. (2000). Production of polyclonal antibodies against ochratoxin A and its detection in chillies by ELISA. J Agric Food Chem. 48:5079–5082.
  • Doko MB, Rapior S, Visconti A, Schjoth JE. (1995). Incidence and levels of fumonisin contamination in Maize genotypes grown in Europe and Africa. J Agric Food Chem. 43 (2):429–434.
  • Domijan AM, Peraica M, Cvjetkovic B, Turcin S, Jurjevic Z, Ivic D. (2005). Mould contamination and co-occurrence of mycotoxins in maize grain in Croatia. Acta Pharm. 55:349–356.
  • Domijan AM, Peraica M, Zlender V, Cvjetkovic B, Jurjevic Z, Pintaric ST, Ivic D. (2005). Seed borne fungi and ochratoxin A contamination of dry beans in the republic of Croatia. Food Chem Toxicol. 43:427–432.
  • Dongo L, Bandyopadhyay R, Kumar M, Ojiambo PS. (2008). Occurrence of ochratoxin A in Nigerian ready for sale cocoa beans. Agric J. 3:4–9.
  • Dowd D. (1998). Involvement of arthropods in the establishment of mycotoxigenic fungi under field conditions. In: Sinha KK, Bhatnagar D, eds. Mycotoxins in agriculture and food safety. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker, Inc., pp. 307–350.
  • Eaton DL, Gallagher EP. (2004). Mechanisms of aflatoxins carcinogenesis. Ann Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 34:135–172.
  • El-Nezami H, Polychronaki N, Salminen S, Mykkanen H. (2002). Binding rather than metabolism may explain the interaction of two food grade Lactobacillus strains with zearalenone and its derivative zearalenol. Appl Environ Microbiol. 68:3545–3549.
  • Erdogan A. (2004). The aflatoxin contamination of some pepper types sold in Turkey. Chemosphere. 56:321–325.
  • Escoula L, Moore J, Baradat C. (1977). The toxins of Byssochlamys nivea. Part I. Acute toxicity of patulin in adult rats and mice. Annales de Recherches Veterinaires. 8:41–49.
  • Escoula L, Thomsen M, Bourdiol M, Pipy B, Peuriere S, Roubinet S. (1988). Patulin immunotoxicology: effect on phagocyte activation and cellular and humoral immune system of mice and rabbits. Int J Immunopharmacol. 10:983–989.
  • Fandohan P, Gnonlonfin B, Hell K, Marasas WFO, Wingfield MJ. (2005). Impact of indigenous storage systems and insect infestation on the contamination of maize with fumonisins. African J. Biotechnol. 5(7):546–552.
  • Fink-Gremmels J. (1999). Mycotoxins: their implications for human and animal health. Vet Q. 21:115–120.
  • Food and Agriculture Organization. (1997). Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations food and nutrition paper 64. Worldwide regulations for mycotoxins. A compendium. Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization.
  • Food and Agriculture Organization. (2004). Worldwide regulations for mycotoxins in food and feed in 2003. FAO Food and Nutrition Paper no. 81. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization, pp. 1–180.
  • Food Standards Agency. (2003). UK mycotoxin survey. Food Standards Agency. Available from: http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdsf/35cereal.pdf.. (Accessed March 12, 2006.)
  • Food Standards Agency. (2005). Survey of maize-based retail products for mycotoxins. FSIS 72/05. Food Standards Agency. Available from: http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/fsis7205.pdf. (Accessed June 15, 2005).
  • Frank HK, Orth R, Figge A. (1977). Patulin in foods of plant origin. II. Several kinds of fruit and vegetables and fruit and vegetable products. Z Lebensm Unters Forsch. 163:111–114.
  • Freitas VPS, Brigido BM. (1998). Occurrence of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2 in peanuts and their products marketed in the region of Campinas, Brazil in 1995 and 1996. Food Addit Contam. 15(7):807–811.
  • Funes GJ, Resnik SL. (2009). Determination of patulin in solid and semisolid apple and pear products marketed in Argentina. Food Cont. 20:277–280.
  • Gashlan HM. (2009). High performance liquid chromatographic determination of patulin in apple juice: Investigation of its contamination levels in Saudi Arabia. Scient Resea Essay. 2:69–72.
  • Gelderblom WCA, Smuts CM, Abel S, Snyman SD, Cawood ME, van der Westhuizen L, Swanevelder S. (1996). Effect of fumonisin B1 on protein and lipid synthesis in primary rat hepatocytes. Food Chem Toxicol. 34:361–369.
  • Ghali R, Ghorbel H, Hedilli A. (2009). Fumonisin determination in Tunisian foods and feeds. ELISA and HPLC methods comparison. J Agric Food Chem. 57:3955–3960.
  • Ghiasian SA, Maghsood AH, Yazdanpanah H, Shephard GS, Van Der Westhuizen L, Vismer HF, Rheeder JP, Marasas WFO. (2006). Incidence of Fusarium verticillioides and levels of fumonisins in corn from main production areas in Iran. J Agric Food Chem. 54:6118–6122.
  • Gökmen V, Acar J. (1998). Incidence of patulin in apple juice concentrates produced in Turkey. J Chromatography A. 815:99–102.
  • González-Osnaya L, Soriano JM, Moltó JC, Mañes J. (2007). Exposure to patulin from consumption of apple-based products. Food Addit Contam. 24:1268–1274.
  • Groopman JD, Kensler TW. (2005). Role of metabolism and viruses in aflatoxin-induced liver cancer. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 206:131–137.
  • Groves FD, Zhang L, Chang YS, Ross PF, Casper H, Norred WP, You WC, Fraumeni JF. (1999). Fusarium mycotoxins in corn and corn products in a high-risk area for gastric cancer in Shandong Province, China. J AOAC Int. 82:657–662.
  • Gutema T, Munimbazi C, Bullerman LB. (2000). Occurrence of fumonisins and moniliformin in corn and corn-based food products of US origin. J Food Prot. 63:1732–1737.
  • Hagler WM, Towers NR, Mirocha CJ, Eppley RM, Bryden WL. (2001). Zearalenone: mycotoxin or mycoestrogen?. In: Summerell BA, Leslie JF, Backhouse D. Bryden WL, Burgess, LW, eds. Fusarium. Paul E. Nelson Memorial Symposium. St. Paul, MN: APS Press, pp. 321–331.
  • Hamilton PB, Huff WE, Harris JR, Wyatt RD. (1982). Natural occurrences of ochratoxicosis in poultry. Poult Sci. 61:1832–1836.
  • Harrison LR, Colvin BM, Greene JT, Newman LE, Cole JR. (1990). Pulmonary edema and hydrothorax in swine produced by fumonisin B1, a toxic metabolite of Fusarium moniliforme. J Vet Diagn Invest. 2:217–221.
  • Harvey JM, Smith Jr WL, Kaufman J. (1972). Market diseases of stone fruits: cherries, peaches, nectarines, apricots, and plums. USDA Handbook, 414:64.
  • Harwig J, Blanchfield BJ, Scott PM. (1978). Patulin production by Penicillium roqueforti Thom from grape. Canadian Inst Food Sci Technol J. 11:149–151.
  • Hasan HAH. (2000). Patulin and aflatoxin in brown rot lesion of apple fruits and their regulation. World J Microbiol Biotechnol. 16:607–612.
  • Hayes AW, Philips TD, Williams WL, Ciegler A. (1979). Acute toxicity of patulin in mice and rats. Toxicol. 13, 91–100.
  • Heenan CN, Shaw KJ, Pitt JI. (1998). Ochratoxin A production by Aspergillus carbonarius and A. niger isolates and detection using coconut cream agar. J Food Mycol. 1:67–72.
  • Heffron J. (1999). Endocrine disrupters. Are they an insidious risk to health? Biochemist. 28–31.
  • Hesseltine CW, Bothast RJ. (1977). Mold development in ears of corn from tasseling to harvest. Mycologia. 69:328.
  • Hidy PH, Baldwin RS, Greasham RL, Keith CL, Mc-Mullen JR. (1977). Zearalenone and some derivatives: production and biological activities. Adv Appl Microbiol. 22:59–82.
  • Hietaniemi V, Kumpulainen J. (1991). Contents of Fusarium toxins in Finnish and imported grains and feeds. Food Addit Contam. 8:171–182.
  • Hope R, Aldred D, Magan N. (2005). Comparison of environmental profiles for growth and deoxynivalenol production by Fusarium culmorum and F. graminearum on wheat grain. Lett Appl Microbiol. 40:295–300.
  • Hopkins J. (1993). The toxicological hazards of patulin. Food Chem Toxicol. 31, 455–459.
  • Hopmans EC, Murphy PA. (1993). Detection of fumonisins B1, B2, and B3 and hydrolyzed fumonisin B1 in corn-containing foods. J Agric Food Chem. 41:1655–1658.
  • Humpf HU, Schmelz EM, Meredith FI, Vesper H, Vales TR, Wang E, Menaldino DS, Liotta DC, Merrill AH Jr. (1998). Acylation of naturally occurring and synthetic 1-deoxysphinganines by ceramide synthase. Formation of N-palmitoyl-aminopentol produces a toxic metabolite of hydrolyzed fumonisin, AP1, and a new category of ceramide synthase inhibitor. J Biol Chem. 273:19060–19064.
  • Ibrahim TF, El-Abedeen AZ, El-Morsy GA, El-Azhary TM. (1998). Aflatoxins in Egyptian sorghum grains: detection and estimation. Egyptian J Agric Res. 76:923–931.
  • Iha MH, Sabino M. (2008). Incidence of patulin in Brazilian apple-based drinks. Food Cont. 19:417–422.
  • International Agency for Research on Cancer. (1987). IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Overall evaluation of carcinogenicity. An updating of IARC monographs volumes 1 to Supplement 7. Lyon: IARC.
  • International Agency for Research on Cancer. (1993). Some naturally occurring substances: Food items and constituents, heterocyclic aromatic amines and mycotoxins. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans (pp. 489–521). Geneva: IARC, 56.
  • Ito R, Yamazaki H, Inoue K, Yoshimura Y, Kawaguchi M, Nakazawa H. (2004). Development of liquid chromatography-electrospray mass spectrometry for the determination of patulin in apple juice. Investigation of its contamination levels in Japan. J Agric Food Chem. 52:7464–7468.
  • Janardhana GR, Raveesha KA, Shetty HS. (1999). Mycotoxin contamination of maize grains grown in Karnataka (India). Food Chem Toxicol. 37:863–868.
  • Jelinek FF, Pohland AE, Wood GE. (1989). Review of mycotoxin contamination. worldwide occurrence of mycotoxins in foods and feeds. an update. J AOAC. 72:223–230.
  • Jens FC, Jørn S, Robert SA, Thomas LO, Ulf T. (2007). Fumonisin B2 production by Aspergillus niger. J Agric Food Chem. 55(23):9727–9732.
  • Jiminez M, Mateo R, Querol A, Huerta T, Hernandez E. (1991). Mycotoxins and mycotoxigenic moulds in nuts and sunflower seeds for human consumption. Mycopathologia. 115:121–127.
  • Jindal N, Mahipal SK, Rottinghaus GE. (1999). Occurrence of fumonisin B1 in maize and poultry feeds in Haryana, India. Mycopathologia. 148:37–40.
  • Jonsyn-Ellis FE. (2000). Seasonal variation in exposure frequency and concentration levels of aflatoxins and ochratoxins in urine samples of boys and girls. Mycopathologia. 152:35–40.
  • Josefson E, Andersson A. (1976). Analysis of patulin in apple beverages sold in Sweden. Vår Foda. 28:189–196.
  • Juan C, Zinedine A, Idrissi L, Mañes J. (2008). Ochratoxin A in rice on the Moroccan retail market. Int Food Microbiol. 126:83–85.
  • Karimi G, Hassanzadeh M, Yazdanpanah H, Nazari F, Iranshahi M, Nili, A. (2008). Contamination of patulin in clear apple juice in Mashhad, Iran. J Food Safety. 28:413–421.
  • Kenji GM, Mvula AM, Koaze H, Baba N. (2000). Aflatoxin contamination of Kenyan maize flour and malted Kenyan and Malawian grains. Sci Rep Faculty Agricul. 89:5–7.
  • Kensler TW, Egner PA, Wang JB, Zhu YR, Zhang BC, Lu PX, Chen JG, Qian GS, Kuang SY, Jackson PE, Gange SJ, Jacobson LP, Munoz A, Groopman JD. (2004). Chemoprevention of hepatocellular carcinomain aflatoxin endemic areas. Gastroenterol. 127(Suppl 1):S310–318.
  • Kishore GK, Pande S, Manjula K, Rao JN, Thomas D. (2002). Occurrence of mycotoxins and toxigenic fungi in groundnut seeds in Andhra Pradesh, India. Plant Pathol J. 18(4):204–209.
  • Klich MA, Mullaney EJ, Daly CB, Cary JW. (2000). Molecular and physiological aspects of aflatoxin and sterigmatocystin biosynthesis by A. tamarii and A. ochraceoroseus. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 53:605–609.
  • Koirala P, Kumar S, Yadav BK, Premarajan KC. (2005). Occurrence of aflatoxin in some of the food and feed in Nepal. Indian J Med Sci. 59(8):331–336.
  • Kpodo K, Thrane U, Hald B. (2000). Fusaria and fumonisins in maize from Ghana and their co-occurrence with aflatoxins. Int J Food Microbiol. 61:147–157.
  • Krogh P. (1987). Ochratoxin in foods, p. 97–110. In: Krogh P, ed. Mycotoxins in Food. London: Academic Press.
  • Kuiper-Goodman T. (1998). Food safety: mycotoxins and phycotoxins in perspective, p. 25–48. In: Miraglia M, van Edmond H, Brera C, Gilbert J, eds. Mycotoxins and phycotoxins-developments in chemistry, toxicology and food safety. Fort Collins, CO: Alken Inc.
  • Kuiper-Goodman T, Scott PM. (1989). Risk assessment of the mycotoxin ochratoxin A. Biomed Environ Sci. 2:179–248.
  • Kuiper-Goodman T, Scott PM, McEwen NP, Lombaert GA, Ng W. (1996). Approaches to the risk assessment of fumonisins in corn-based foods in Canada. Adv Exp Med Biol. 392:369–393.
  • Kuiper-Goodman T, Scott PM, Watanabe H. (1987). Risk assessment of the mycotoxin zearalenone. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 7:253–306.
  • Kumagai S, Nakajima M, Tabata S, Ishikuro E, Tanaka T, Norizuki H, Itoh Y, Aoyama K, Fujita K, Kai S, Sato T, Saito S, Yoshiike N, Konishi YS. (2008). Aflatoxin and ochratoxin A contamination of retail foods and intake of these mycotoxins in Japan. Food Addit Contam. 25(9):1101–1106.
  • Kurtz HJ, Mirocha J. (1978). Zearalenone (F2) induced estrogenic syndrome in swine, p. 1256–1264. In: Wyllie TD, Morehouse LG, eds. Mycotoxic Fungi, Mycotoxins, Mycotoxicoses, vol. 2. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker.
  • Kwak MK, Egner PA, Dolan PM, Gomez MR, Groopman JD, Itoh K, Yamamoto M, Kensler TW. (2001). Role of phase 2 enzyme induction in chemoprotection by dithiolethiones. Mutat. Res. 482:305–315.
  • Leblanc JC, Tard A, Volatier JL, Verger P. (2005). Estimated dietary exposure to principal food mycotoxins from The First French Total Dietary study. Food Addit Contam. 22:652–672.
  • Legarda TM, Burdaspal PA. (2005). Patulina en alimentos infantiles a base de manzana comercializados en España y otro países Europeos, usando un métodode análisis adecuado para su determinación a niveles inferiores a 10 µg/kg. Alimentaria, 368:69–79.
  • Leggott NL, Shephard GS. (2001). Patulin in South Africa commercial apple products. Food Cont. 12:73–76.
  • Li FQ, Luo XY, Yoshizawa T. (1999). Mycotoxins (trichothecenes, zearalenone, and fumonisins) in cereals associated with human red-mold intoxications stored since 1989 and 1991 in China. Nat Toxins. 7:9–97.
  • Li FQ, Yoshizawa T, Kawamura O, Luo XY, Li YW. (2001). Aflatoxins and fumonisins from the high incidence area for human hepatocellular carcinoma in China. J Agric Food Chem. 49:4122–4126.
  • Lindroth S, Niskanen A. (1978). Comparison of potential patulin hazard in home-made and commercial apple products. J Food Sci. 43:446–448.
  • Lino CM, Silva LJG, Pena A, Fernández M, Mañes J. (2007). Occurrence of fumonisins B1 and B2 in broa, typical Portuguese maize bread. Int J Food Microbiol. 118:79–82.
  • Lipigorngoson S, Limtrakul P, Suttajit M, Yoshizawa T. (2003). In-house direct cELISA for determining aflatoxin B-1 in Thai corn and peanuts. Food Addit Contam. 20:838–845.
  • Liu B, Yu F, Wu T, Li S, Su M, Wang M, Shih S. (2003). Evaluation of genotoxic risk and oxidative DNA damage in mammalian cells exposed to mycotoxins, patulin and citrinin. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 191:255–263.
  • Liu Z, Gao J, Yu J. (2006). Aflatoxins in stored maize and rice grains in Liaoning Province, China. J Stored Prod Res. 42:468–479.
  • Lombaert GA, Pellaers P, Roscoe V, Mankotia M, Neil R, Scott P. (2003). Mycotoxins in infant cereal foods from the Canadian retail market. Food Addit Contam. 20:494–504.
  • Lovelace CE, Nyathi CB. (1977). Estimation of the fungal toxins, zearalenone and aflatoxin, contaminating opaque maize beer in Zambia. J Sci Food Agric. 28:288–292.
  • Lovett J, Boutin B, Thompson RG. (1974). Patulin production in cherry by Penicillium and Aspergillus species. J Milk Food Technol. 37:530.
  • Machinski M Jr, Soares LMV. (2000). Fumonisins B1 and B2 in Brazilian corn-based food products. Food Addit Contam., 17:875–879.
  • Magnoli C, Astoreca A, Ponsone ML, Juri MGF, Barberis C, Dalcero AM. (2007). Ochratoxin A and Aspergillus section Nigri in peanut seeds at different months of storage in Córdoba, Argentina. Int J Food Microbiol. 119:213–218.
  • Makun HA, Gbodi TA, Akanya HO, Salako AE, Ogbadu HG. (2007). Fungi and some mycotoxins contaminating rice (Oryza sativa) in Niger state, Nigeria. African J Biotechnol. 6(2):99–108.
  • Malmauret L, Massin DP, Hardy JL, Vergery P. (2002). Contaminants in organic and conventional foodstuffs in France. Food Addit Contam. 19:524–532.
  • Manthey FA, Wolf-Hall CE, Yalla S, Vijayakumar C, Carlson D. (2004). Microbial loads, mycotoxins, and quality of durum wheat from the 2001 harvest of the northern plains region of the United States. J Food Prot. 67:772–780.
  • Marasas WFO. (1996). Fumonsins: history, world-wide occurrence and impact. In: Jackson LS, DeVries JW, Bullerman LB, eds. Fumonisins in food. New York, NY: Plenum Press, pp. 1–17.
  • Marasas WFO, Miller JD, Riley RT, Visconti A. (2001). Fumonisins—occurrence, toxicology, metabolism and risk assessment. p 332–359. In: Summerell BA, Leslie JF, Backhouse D, Bryden WL, Burgess LW, eds. Fusarium. Paul E. Nelson Memorial Symposium. St. Paul, MN: APS Press.
  • Marasas WFO, Nelson PE, Toussoun TA. (1984). Toxigenic Fusarium species: identity and mycotoxicology. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press.
  • Marin NS, Morales NH, Hasan HAH, Ramos AJ, Sanchis V. (2006). Patulin distribution in Fuji and Golden apples contaminated with Penicillium expansum. Food Addit Contam. 23(12):1316–1322.
  • Marquardt RR, Frohlich AA. (1992). A review of recent advances in understanding ochratoxicosis. J Anim Sci. 70:3968–3988.
  • Marsh SF, Payne GA. (1984). Scanning EM studies on the colonization of dent corn by Aspergillus flavus. Phytopathol. 74:557.
  • Martins ML, Martins HM. (2001). Determination of deoxynivalenol in wheat-based breakfast cereals marketed in Portugal. J Food Prot. 64:1848–1850.
  • McCallum JL, Tsao R, Zhou T. (2002). Factors affecting patulin production by Penicillium expansum. J Food Protec. 65(12):1937–1942.
  • McKinley ER, Carlton WW. (1980). Patulin mycotoxicosis in Swiss ICR mice. Food Costm Toxicol. 18:173–179.
  • McKinley ER, Carlton WW, Boon GD. (1982). Patulin mycotoxicosis in the rat: toxicology, pathology and clinical pathology. Food Chem Toxicol. 20:289–300.
  • Meisner H, Meisner P. (1981). Ochratoxin A, an inhibitor of renal phosphorenol pyruvate carboxylase. Arch Biochem Biophys. 208:146–151.
  • Meky FA, Turner PC, Ashcroft AE, Miller JD, Qiao Y-L, Roth MJ, Wild CP. (2003). Development of a urinary biomarker of human exposure to deoxynivalenol. Food Chem. Toxicol. 41:265–273.
  • Merrill AH, Bullards, MC, Wang E, Voss KA, Riley RT. (2001). Sphingolipid metabolism: roles in signal transduction and disruption by fumonisins. Environ Health Perspect. 109 (Suppl. 2):283–289.
  • Mirocha CJ, Christensen CM. (1974). Oestrogenic mycotoxins synthesized by Fusarium. In: Purchase IFH, ed. Mycotoxins. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 129–148.
  • Mirocha CJ, Christensen CM, Nelson GH. (1967). Estrogenic metabolite produced by Fusarium graminearum in stored grain. Appl Microbiol. 15:497–503.
  • Missmer SA, Hendricks KA, Suarez L, Larsen RD, Rothman KJ. (2000). Fumonisins and neural tube defects. Epidemiology. 11:183–184.
  • Moukas A, Panagiotopoulou V, Markaki P. (2008). Determination of patulin in fruit juices using HPLC-DAD and GS-MSD techniques. Food Chem. 109:860–867.
  • Murphy PA, Hendrich S, Hopmans EC, Hauck CC, Lu Z, Buseman G, Munkvold G. (1996). Effect of processing on fumonisins in foods. In: Jackson LA, ed. Fumonisins in foods. New York: Plenum Publishing, pp. 323–334.
  • Musaiger AO, Al-Jedah JH, D’souza R. (2008). Occurrence of contaminants in foods commonly consumed in Bahrain. Food Cont. 19:854–861.
  • Muthomi JW, Ndungu JK, Gathumbi JK, Mutitu EW, Wagacha JW. (2008). The occurrence of Fusarium species and mycotoxins in Kenyan wheat. Crop Protec. 27:1215– 1219.
  • Ndiaye B, Diop YM, Diouf A. (1999). Measurement and levels of aflatoxins in small-scale pressed peanut oil prepared in the Diourbel and Kaolack regions of Senegal. Dakar Med. 44:202–205.
  • Nelson PE, Desjardins AE, Plattner RD. (1993). Fumonisins, mycotoxins produced by Fusarium species: biology, chemistry and significance. Annu Rev Phytopathol. 31:233–252.
  • Ngindu A, Johnson BK, Kenya PR, Ngira JA, Ocheng DM, Nandwa H. (1982). Outbreak of acute hepatitis caused by aflatoxin poisoning in Kenya. Lancet. 8285:1346–1348.
  • Nguyen MT, Tozlovanu M, Tran TL, Leszkowicz AP. (2007). Occurrence of aflatoxin B1, citrinin and ochratoxin A in rice in five provinces of the central region of Vietnam. Food Chem. 105:42–47.
  • Nijs M, Sizoo EA, Vermunt AEM, Notermans SHW, van Egmond HP. (1998). The occurrence of fumonisin B1 in maize-containing foods in the Netherlands. Food Addit Contam. 15(4):385–388.
  • Norred WP. (1993). Fumonisins-mycotoxins produced by Fusarium moniliforme. J Toxicol Environ Health. 38:309–328.
  • Northolt MD, Van Egmond HP, Paulsch WE. (1979). Patulin production by some fungal species in relation to water activity and temperature. J Food Protec. 41(11):885–890.
  • Odoemelam SA, Osu CI. (2009). Aflatoxin B1 contamination of some edible grains marketed in Nigeria. E-Journal of Chem. 6(2):308–314.
  • Ogunfowora BO, Daniel O. (2006). Neonatal jaundice and its management: knowledge, attitude and practice of community health workers in Nigeria. BMC Public Health. 6:19.
  • Omer RE, Bakker MI, Veer PV, Hoogenboom RL, Polman TH, Alin, GM, Idris MO, Kadaru, AM., Kok, F.J. (1998). Aflatoxin and liver cancer in Sudan. Nutr Cancer. 32:174–180.
  • Osswald H, Frank HK, Komitkswi D, Winter H. (1978). Long-term testing of patulin administered orally to Sprague-Dawley rats and Swiss mice. Food Cosmet Toxicol. 16:243–247.
  • Palli D, Miraglia M, Saieva C, Masala G, Cava E, Colatosti M, Corsi AM, Russo A, Brera C. (1999). Serum levels of ochratoxin A in healthy adults in Tuscany: correlation with individual characteristics and between repeat measurements. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers Prevention. 8:265–269.
  • Pan D, Bonsignore F, Rivas F, Perera G, Bettucci L. (2007). Deoxynivalenol in barley samples from Uruguay. Int J Food Microbiol. 114:149–152.
  • Park JW, Chung SH, Kim YB. (2005). Ochratoxin A in Korean food commodities: occurrence and safety evaluation. J Agric Food Chem. 53(11):4637–4642.
  • Park JW, Kimy EK, Shon DH, Kim YB. (2002). Natural co-occurrence of aflatoxin B1, fumonisin B1 and ochratoxin A in barley and corn foods from Korea. Food Addit Contam. 19(11):1073–1080.
  • Paterson RRM. (2007). Aflatoxins contamination in chilli samples from Pakistan. Food Control 18:817–820.
  • Paucod JC, Krivobok S, Vidal D. (1990). Immunotoxicity testing of mycotoxins T-2 and patulin on Balb/C mice. Acta Microbiologica Hungarica. 37:331–339.
  • Payne GA. (1992). Aflatoxins in maize. Critical Rev Plant Sci. 10:423–440.
  • Peers FG, Bosch X, Kaldor J, Linsell CA, Pluijmen M. (1987). Aflatoxin exposure, hepatitis B virus infection and liver cancer in Swaziland. Int J Cancer. 39:545–553.
  • Peraica M, Domijan AM. (2001). Mycotoxins in food and human health. Arh Hig Rada Toksikol. 52:23–35.
  • Peraica M, Radic B, Lucic A, Pavlovic M. (1999). Toxic effects of mycotoxins in humans. Bull WHO. 77:754–766.
  • Pestka JJ, Bondy GS. (1994). Immunotoxic effects of mycotoxins. In: Miller JD, Trenholm HL, eds. Mycotoxins in Grain-Compounds other than Aflatoxin. St. Paul, MN: Eagan Press, pp. 339–358.
  • Piemontese L, Solfrizzo M, Visconti A. (2005). Occurrence of patulin in conventional and organic fruit products in Italy and subsequent exposure assessment. Food Addit Contam. 22:437–442.
  • Pier AC, Richard JL, Cysewski SJ. (1980). Implications of mycotoxins in animal disease. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 176:71–724.
  • Pierson CF, Ceponis MJ, McColloch LP. (1971). Market diseases of apples, pears, and quinces. Agricultural Handbook. 376:14–16.
  • Pietri A, Bertuzzi T, Pallaroni L, Piva G. (2004). Occurrence of mycotoxins and ergosterol in maize harvested over 5 years in Northern Italy. Food Addit Contam. 21:479–487.
  • Pitt JI. (1987). Penicillium viridicatum, Penicillium verrucosum, and production of ochratoxin A. Appl Environ Microbiol. 53:266–269.
  • Pitt JI. (2000). Toxigenic fungi: which are important? Med Mycol. 38(Suppl. 1):17–22.
  • Plumlee KH, Galey FD. (1994). Neurotoxic mycotoxins: A review of fungal toxins that cause neurological disease in large animals. J Vet Intern Med. 8:49–54.
  • Prieta J, Moreno MA, Díaz S, Suárez G, Dominguez L. (1994). Survey of patulin in apple juice and children’s apple food by diphasic dialysis membrane procedure. J Agric Food Chem. 42:1701–1703.
  • Proctor RH. (2000). Fusarium toxins: trichothecenes and fumonisins. In: Cary JW, Linz JE, Bhatnagar D, eds. Microbial Food-Borne Diseases: Mechanisms of Pathogenesis and Toxin Synthesis. Lancaster, PA: Technomic Publications, pp. 363–381.
  • Puntaric D, Bosnir J, Smit Z, Skes I, Baklaic Z. (2001). Ochratoxin A in corn and wheat: geographical association with endemic nephropathy. Croatian Medical J. 42:175–180.
  • Qian GS, Ross RK, Yu MC, Yuan JM, Gao YT, Henderson BE, Wogan GN, Groopman JD. (1994). A follow-up study of urinary markers of aflatoxin exposure and liver cancer risk in Shanghai, People’s Republic of China. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 3:3–10.
  • Raghavender CR, Reddy BN. (2009). Human and animal disease outbreaks in India due to mycotoxins other than aflatoxins. World Mycotoxin J. 2:23–30.
  • Rahimtula AD, Bereziat JC, Griot VB, Bartsch H. (1988). Lipid peroxidation as a possible cause of ochratoxin A toxicity. Biochem Pharmacol. 37:4469–4475.
  • Ramakrishna Y, Bhat RV, Vasanthi S. (1990). Natural occurrence of mycotoxins in staple foods in India. J Agric Food Chem. 38(9):1857–1859.
  • Rasmussen PH, Ghorbani F, Berg T. (2003). Deoxynivalenol and other Fusarium toxins in wheat and rye flours on the Danish market. Food Addit Contam. 20:396–404.
  • Reddy BN, Raghavender CR. (2007). Outbreaks of aflatoxicoses in India. Afr J Food Agric Nutr Dev. 7(5). http://www.ajfand.net/Issue16/PDFs/Reddy_2750.pdf (Accessed on 04.05.2008.)
  • Reddy BN, Raghavender CR. (2008). Outbreaks of fusarial-toxicoses in India. Cereal Res Comm. 36(Suppl B):321–325.
  • Reddy KRN, Reddy CS, Muralidharan K. (2009). Detection of Aspergillus spp. and aflatoxin B1 in rice in India. Food Microbiol. 26:27–31.
  • Reyes DB, Martinez LJ, Rolón RC. (2007). Zearalenone contamination in corn for human consumption in the state of Tlaxcala, Mexico. Food Chem. 100(2):693–698.
  • Rheeder JP, Marasas WFO, Vismer HF. (2002). Production of fumonisin analogs by Fusarium species. Appl Environ Microbiol. 68:2102–2105.
  • Richard JL. (1998). Mycotoxins, toxicity and metabolism in animals—a systems approach overview. In: Miraglia M, van Egmond HP, Brera C, Gilbert J, eds. Mycotoxins and Phycotoxins-Developments in Chemistry, Toxicology and Food Safety. Fort Collins: Alaken, Inc., pp. 363–397.
  • Riordan MJO, Wilkinson MG. (2008). A survey of the incidence and level of aflatoxin contamination in a range of imported spice preparations on the Irish retail market. Food Chem. 107:1429–1435.
  • Ritieni A. (2003). Patulin in Italian commercial apple products. J Agric Food Chem. 51:6086–6090.
  • Romagnoli B, Menna V, Gruppioni N, Bergamini C. (2007). Aflatoxins in spices, aromatic herbs, herb–teas and medicinal plants marketed in Italy. Food Cont. 18:697–701.
  • Rosenberger DA. (2003). Control of Penicillium expansum during apple harvest and storage. In: Patulin Technical Symposium. Feb 18–19, 2003; Kissimmee, FL. Summit, IL: National Center for Food Safety and Technology.
  • Rovira R, Ribera F, Sanchis V, Canela R. (1993). Improvements in the quantification of patulin in apple juice high-performance liquid chromatography. J Agric Food Chem. 41:214–216.
  • Rutqvist L, Bjorklund NE, Hult K, Hockby E, Carlsson B. (1978). Ochratoxin A as the cause of spontaneous nephropathy in fattening pigs. Appl Environ Microbiol. 36:920–925.
  • Sales A, Yoshizawa, T. (2005). Updated profile of aflatoxin and Aspergillus flavus contamination in rice and its byproducts from the Philippines. Food Addit Contam. 22(5):429–436.
  • Sanchis V, Sala N, Oncins L, Vin˜as I, Canela R. (1994). Occurrence of fumonisins B1 and B2 in corn-based products from the Spanish market. Appl Environ Microbiol. 60:2147–2148.
  • Santos CCM, Lopes MRV, Kosseki SY. (2001). Ocorrência de aflatoxinas em amendoim e produtos de amendoim comercializados na regia˜o de Sa˜o José de Rio Preto/SP. Revista do Instituto Adolfo Lutz. 60(2):153–157.
  • Saxena N, Premendra DD, Kausar MA, Das M. (2008). Patulin in apple juices: Incidence and likely intake in an Indian population. Food Addit Contam. 1(2):140–146.
  • Scheidegger KA, Payne GA. (2003). Unlocking the secrets behind secondary metabolism: a review of Aspergillus flavus from pathogenicity to functional genomics. J Toxicol. 22:423–459.
  • Schoental R. (1984). Mycotoxins and the Bible. Perspect Biol Med. 28:117–120.
  • Schollenberger M, Jara HT, Suchy S, Drochner W, Muller HM. (2002). Fusarium toxins in wheat flour collected in an area in southwest Germany. Int J Food Microbiol. 72:85–89.
  • Schollenberger M, Müller HM, Drochner W. (2003). Deoxynivalenol contents in foodstuffs of organical and conventional production. Mycotoxin Res. 19:39–42.
  • Schollenberger M, Müller HM, Rüfle M, Jara HT, Suchy S, Plank S, Drochner W. (2007). Natural occurrence of Fusarium toxins in soy food marketed in Germany. Int J Food Microbiol. 113:14–146.
  • Schwartz GG. (2002). Hypothesis: does ochratoxin A cause testicular cancer? Cancer Causes Control. 13:91–100.
  • Scudamore KA, Nawaz S, Hetmanski MT. (1998). Mycotoxins in ingredients of animal feeding stuffs: II. Determination of mycotoxins in maize and maize products. Food Addit Contam. 15:30–55.
  • Sharma RP. (1993). Immunotoxicity of mycotoxins. J Dairy Sci. 76:892–897.
  • Shephard GS. (2008). Determination of mycotoxins in human foods. Chem Soc Rev. 37:2468–2477.
  • Shetty PH, Bhat RV. (1997). Natural occurrence of fumonisin B1 and its co-occurrence with aflatoxin B1 in Indian sorghum, maize, and poultry Feeds. J Agric Food Chem. 45(6):2170–2173.
  • Shier WT. (1998). Estrogenic mycotoxins. Rev Med Vet. 149:599–604.
  • Shier WT. (2000). The fumonisin paradox: A review of research on oral bioavailability of fumonisin B1, a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium moniliforme. J Toxicol Toxin Rev. 19:161–187.
  • Shier WT, Abbas HK, Abou-Karam M, Badria FA, Resch PA. (2003). Fumonisins: Abiogenic conversions of an environmental tumor promoter and common food contaminant. J Toxicol Toxin Rev. 22:591–616.
  • Shier WT, Abbas HK, Badria FA. (1997). Structure-activity relationships of the corn fungal toxin fumonisin B1: implications for food safety. J Nat Toxins. 6:225–242.
  • Shier WT, Shier AC, Xie W, Mirocha CJ. (2001). Structure-activity relationships for human estrogenic activity in zearalenone mycotoxins. Toxicon 39:1435–1438.
  • Shier WT, Tiefel PA, Abbas HK. (1999). Current research on mycotoxins: fumonisins. In: Tu AT, Gaffield W, eds. Natural and Selected Synthetic Toxins: Biological Implications. American Chemical Society Symposium Series, Vol. 745. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, pp. 54–66.
  • Shotwell LL, Hesseltine CW, Goulden ML. (1969). Ochratoxin A: occurrence as natural contaminant of a corn sample. Appl Microbiol. 17:765–766.
  • Siame BA, Mpuchane SF, Gashe BA, Allotey J, Teffera G. (1998). Occurrence of aflatoxins, fumonisin B1 and zearalenone in foods and feeds in Botswana. J Food Prot. 61:1670–1673.
  • Silva CM, Vargas EA. (2001). A survey of zearalenone in corn using Romer Mycosep 224 column and high performance liquid chromatography. Food Addit Contam. 18:39–45.
  • Sodeinde O, Chan MCK, Maxwell SM, Familusi JB, Hendirckse RG. (1995). Neonatal jaundice, aflatoxins and naphthols: report of a study in Ibadan, Nigeria. Ann Trop Pediatr. 15:107–113.
  • Solovey MMS, Somoza, C, Cano G, Pacin A, Resnik S. (1999). A survey of fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone and aflatoxins contamination in corn-based food products in Argentina. Food Addit Contam. 16(8):325–329.
  • Sommer NF, Buchanan JR, Fortlage RJ. (1974). Production of patulin by Penicillium expansum. Appl Microbiol. 28:589–593.
  • Spadaro D, Ciavorella A, Frati S, Garibaldi A, Gullino ML. (2007). Incidence and level of patulin contamination in pure and mixed apple juices marketed in Italy. Food Cont. 18:1098–1102.
  • Spadaro D, Garibaldi A, Gullino ML. (2008). Occurrence of patulin and its dietary intake through pear, peach, and apricot juices in Italy. Food Addit Contam. 1(2):134–139.
  • Speijers GJA. (2004). Patulin. In: Magan N, Olsen M, eds. Mycotoxins in Foods: Detection and Control. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, pp. 339–352.
  • Speijers GJA, Van Egmond HP. (1993). Worldwide ochratoxin A levels in food and feeds. In: Creppy EE, Castegnaro M, Dirheimer G, eds. Human Ochratoxicosis and its Pathologies. Montrouge: Colloque INSERM/John Libbey Eurotext Ltd., pp. 85–100.
  • Starko KM, Ray CG, Dominguez LB, Stromberg WL, Woodall DF. (1980). Reye’s syndrome and salicylate use. Pediatrics. 66:859–864.
  • Steiner I, Werner D, Washuttl J. (1999). Patulin in fruit juices. Part 1. Analysis and control in Austrian apple and pear juices. Ernaehrung (Vienna). 23:202–208.
  • Sweeney MJ, White S, Dobson ADW. (2000). Mycotoxins in agriculture and food safety. Irish J Agric Food Res. 39:235–244.
  • Sydenham EW, Shephard GS, Thiel PG, Marasas WFO, Stockenstrom S. (1991). Fumonsin contamination of commercial corn-based human foodstuffs. J Agric Food Chem. 39:2014–2018.
  • Sylos CM, Amaya DBR. (1999). Incidence of patulin in fruits and fruit juice marketed in Campinas, Brazil. Food Addit Contam. 16(2):71–74.
  • Tanaka T, Yamamoto S, Hasegawa A, Aoki N, Besling JR, Sugiura Y, Ueno Y. (1990). A survey of the natural occurrence of Fusarium mycotoxins, deoxynivalenol, nivalenol and zearalenone, in cereals harvested in The Netherlands. Mycopathologia. 110:19–22.
  • Tangni EK, Pussemier L. (2006). Ochratoxin A and citrinin loads in stored wheat grains: Impact of origin dust and possible prediction using ergosterol measurement. Food Addit Contam. 23: 181–189.
  • Tangni EK, Theys R, Mignolet E, Maudoux M, Michelet JY, Laromdelle Y. (2003). Patulin in domestic and imported apple-based drinks in Belgium: Occurrence and exposure assessment. Food Addit Contam. 20:482–489.
  • Thomson C, Henke SE. (2000). Effects of climate and type of storage container on aflatoxin production in corn and its associated risks to wildlife species. J Wildlife Dis. 36:172–179.
  • Torres E, Naccha L, Acuna K, Montoya R, Castrellon J. (1992). Quantification of aflatoxins in corn distributed in the city of Monterrey, N.L. In: VIII IUPAC Symposium on Mycotoxins and Phycotoxins, p. 128.
  • Trucksess MW, Tang Y. (2001). Solid phase extraction method for patulin in apple juice and unfiltered apple juice. In: Trucksess MW, Pohland AF, eds. Mycotoxin protocols. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press, pp. 205–213.
  • Trucksess MW, Thomas F, Young K, Stack ME, Fulueras WF, Page SW. (1995). Survey of deoxynivalenol in U.S. 1993 wheat and barley crops by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. J AOAC Int. 78:631–636.
  • Trucksess W, Jackson LS (eds). Mycotoxins and food safety. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Plenum Publications.
  • Trung TS, Tabuc C, Bailly S, Querin A, Guerre P, Bailly JD. (2008). Fungal mycoflora and contamination of maize from Vietnam with aflatoxin B1 and fumonisin B1. World Mycotoxin J. 1(1):87–94.
  • Tseng TC, Liu CY. (1999). Natural occurrence of fumonisins B1 and B2 in domestic maize of Taiwan. J Agric Food Chem. 47(11):4799–4801.
  • Tseng TC, Liu, CY. (2001). Occurrence of fumonisin B in maize imported into Taiwan. Int J Food Microbiol. 65:23–26.
  • Tutelyan VA. (2004). Deoxynivalenol in cereals in Russia. Toxicol Lett. 153:173–179.
  • Urry WH, Wehrmeister HL, Hodge EB, Hidy PH. (1966). The structure of zearalenone. Tetrahedron Lett. 27:3109–3114.
  • Utian WH. (1973). Comparative trial of P1496, a new non-steroidal oestrogen analogue. Br Medical J. 1:579–581.
  • van der Merwe KJ, Steyne PS, Fourie LF, Scott DB, Theron JJ. 1965). Ochratoxin A, a toxic metabolite produced by Aspergillus ochraceus. Wilh Nature. 205:1112–1113.
  • van Egmond HP. (1989). Aflatoxin M1: occurrence, toxicity, regulation. In: Van Egmond HP, ed. Mycotoxins in Dairy Products. London: Elsevier Applied Science, pp. 11–55.
  • van Egmond HP. (1991). Worldwide regulations for ochratoxin A. In: Castegnaro M, Plestina R, Dirheimer G, Chernozemsky IN, Bartsch H, eds. Mycotoxins, Endemic Nephropathy, and Urinary Tract Tumors. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer, pp. 331–336.
  • van Egmond HP, Schothorst RC, Jonker MA. (2007). Regulations relating to mycotoxins in food perspectives in a global and European context. Annals Bioanalytical Chem. 389: 147–157.
  • Vargas EA, Preis RA, Castro L, Silva CMG. (2001). Co-occurrence of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2, zearalenone and fumonisin in Brazilian corn. Food Addit Contam. 18(11): 981–986.
  • Veldman A, Borggreve GJ, Mulders EJ, van de Lagemaat D. (1992). Occurrence of the mycotoxins ochratoxin A, zearalenone and deoxynivalenol in feed components. Food Addit Contam. 9:647–655.
  • Versari A, Parpinello GP, Mattioli AU. (2007). Survey of patulin contamination in Italian apple juices from organic and conventional agriculture. J Food Technol. 5(2):143–146.
  • Verma RJ.(2004). Aflatoxin cause DNA damage. Int J Hum Genet. 4:231–236.
  • Visconti A, Pascale M. (1998). Determination of zearalenone in corn by means of immunoaffinity clean-up and high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. J Chromatogr A. 815:133–140.
  • Vrabcheva T, Gebler R, Usleber E, Martlbauer E. (1996). First survey on the natural occurrence of Fusarium mycotoxins in Bulgarian wheat. Mycopathologia. 136:47–52.
  • Vrabcheva T, Usleber E, Dietrich R, Mrtlbauer E. (2000). Co-occurrence of ochratoxin A and citrinin in cereals from Bulgarian villages with a history of Balkan Endemic Nephropathy. J Agric Food Chem. 48:2483–2488.
  • Wagacha JM, Muthomi JW. (2008). Mycotoxin problem in Africa: Current status, implications to food safety and health and possible management strategies. Int J Food Microbiol. 124:1–12.
  • Walker JRL.(1969). Inhibition of the apple phenolase system through infection by Penicillium expansum. Phytochem. 8:561–566.
  • Wang JS, Groopman JD. (1999). DNA damage by mycotoxins. Mutat Res. 424:167–181.
  • Ware GM, Thorpe CW, Pohland AE. (1974). Liquid chromatographic method for determination of patulin in apple juice. J AOAC. 57:111–113.
  • Watkins KL, Frazekas G, Palmer MV. (1990). Patulin in Australian apple juice. Food Australia. 42:438–439.
  • Welke JE, Hoeltz M, Dottori HA, Noll B. (2009). Quantitative analysis of patulin in apple juice by thin-layer chromatography using a charge coupled device detector. Food Addit. Contam. 1–5.
  • Williams JH, Phillips TD, Jolly PE, Stiles JK, Jolly CM, Agarwal D. (2004). Human aflatoxicosis in developing countries: a review of toxicology, exposure, potential health consequences, and interventions. Am J Clin Nutr. 80:1106–1122.
  • Wilson DM, Mubatanhema W, Jurjevic Z. (2002). Biology and ecology of mycotoxigenic Aspergillus species as related to economic and health concerns. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2002;54:3–17.
  • Woolf LI.(1986). The heterozygote advantage in phenylketonuria. Am J Hum Genet. 38:773–775.
  • World Health Organization. (1995). Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants. WHO. Forty-Fourth Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. Geneva: Technical Report Series 859, pp. 36–38.
  • World Health Organization. (1999). Basic Food Safety for Health Workers.
  • Wouters MFA, Speijers GJA. (1996). Toxicological evaluations of certain food additives and contaminants in food: Patulin. WHO Food Addit Ser. 35:377–402.
  • Yurdun T, Omurtag GZ, Ersoy Ö. (2001). Incidence of patulin in apple juices marketed in Turkey J Food Protec. 64:1851–1853.
  • Zaied C, Abid S, Zorgui L, Bouaziz C, Chouchane S, Jomaa M, Bacha H.(2009). Natural occurrence of ochratoxin A in Tunisian cereals. Food Cont. 20:218–222.
  • Zinedine A, Brera C, Elakhdari C, Catano C, Debegnach F, Angelini S, De Santis B, Faid M, Benlemlih M, Minardi V, Miraglia, M. (2006). Natural occurrence of mycotoxins in cereals and spices commercialized in Morocco. Food Cont. 17:868–874.
  • Zinedine A, Soriano JM, Molto JC, Manes J. (2007). Review on the toxicity, occurrence, metabolism, detoxification, regulations and intake of zearalenone: An oestrogenic mycotoxins. Food Chem Toxicol. 45:1–18.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.