Zinc oxide nanoparticles in modern sunscreens: An analysis of potential exposure and hazard

References

• Adams L, Lyon D, McIntosh A, Alvarez P. 2006a. Comparative toxicity of nano-scale TiO2, SiO2 and ZnO water suspensions. Wat Sci Tech 54:327–334.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adams LK, Lyon DY, Alvarez PJJ. 2006b. Comparative eco-toxicity of nanoscale TiO2, SiO2, and ZnO water suspensions. Water Res 40:3527–3532.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agren MS. 1991. Influence of two vehicles for zinc oxide on zinc absorption through intact skin and wounds. Acta Derm Venereol 71:153–156.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aruoja V, Dubourguier HC, Kasemets K, Kahru A. 2009. Toxicity of nanoparticles of CuO, ZnO and TiO2 to microalgae Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata. Sci Total Environ 407:1461–1468.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Auffan M, Rose J, Wiesner MR, Bottero JY. 2009. Chemical stability of metallic nanoparticles: A parameter controlling their potential cellular toxicity in vitro. Environ Pollut 157:1127–1133.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baggs RB, Ferin J, Oberdörster G. 1997. Regression of pulmonary lesions produced by inhaled titanium dioxide in rats. Vet Pathol 34:592–597.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barker P, Branch A. 2008. The interaction of modern sunscreen formulations with surface coatings. Prog Org Coat 62:313–320.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baroli B, Ennas MG, Loffredo F, Isola M, Pinna R, Lopez-Quintela MA. 2007. Penetration of metallic nanoparticles in human full-thickness skin. Soc Invest Dermatol 127:1701–1712.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bauermann LP, Bill J, Aldinger F. 2006. Bio-friendly synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles in aqueous solution at near-neutral pH and low temperature. J Phys Chem B 110:5182–5185.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Beckett W, Chalupa D, Pauly-Brown A, Speers D, Stewart J, Frampton M, Utell M, Huang L, Cox C, Zareba W, 2005. Comparing inhaled ultrafine versus fine zinc oxide particles in healthy adults. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 171:1129–1135.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benson HA. 2005. Transdermal drug delivery: Penetration enhancement techniques. Curr Drug Deliv 2:2–33.
   Google Scholar
• Bermudez E, Mangum JB, Asgharian B, Wong BA, Reverdy EE, Janszen DB, Hext PM, Warheit DB, Everitt JI. 2002. Long-term pulmonary responses of three laboratory rodent species to subchronic inhalation of pigmentary titanium dioxide particles. Toxicol Sci 70:86–97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bermudez E, Mangum JB, Wong BA, Asgharian B, Hext PM, Warheit DB, Everitt JI. 2004. Pulmonary responses of mice, rats, and hamsters to subchronic inhalation of ultrafine titanium dioxide particles. Toxicol Sci 77:347–357.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borm PJ, Kreyling W. 2004. Toxicological hazards of inhaled nanoparticles – potential implications for drug delivery. J Nanosci Nanotechnol 4:521–531.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borm PJA, Schins RPF, Albrecht C. 2004. Inhaled particles and lung cancer, Part B: Paradigms and risk assessment. Int J Cancer 110:3–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bosman SJ, Nieto SP, Patton WC, Jacobson JD, Corselli JU, Chan PJ. 2005. Development of mammalian embryos exposed to mixed-size nanoparticles. Clin Exp Obstet Gynecol 32:222–224.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bouwstra JA, Ponec M. 2006. The skin barrier in healthy and diseased state. Biochim Biophys Acta 1758:2080–2095.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brayner R, Ferrari-lliou R, Brivois N, Djediat S, Benedetti MF, Fievet F. 2006. Toxicological impact studies based on Escherichia coli bacteria in ultrafine ZnO nanoparticles colloidal medium. Nano Lett 6:866–870.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breternitz M, Flach M, Prassler J, Elsner P, Fluhr JW. 2007. Acute barrier disruption by adhesive tapes is influenced by pressure, time and anatomical location integrity and cohesion assessed by sequential tape stripping; a randomized, controlled study. Br J Dermatol 156:231–240.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brouwer DH, Gijsbers JH, Lurvink MW. 2004. Personal exposure to ultrafine particles in the workplace: Exploring sampling techniques and strategies. Ann Occup Hyg 48:439–453.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown JS, Zeman KL, Bennett WD. 2002. Ultrafine particle deposition and clearance in the healthy and obstructed lung. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 166:1240–1247.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown MB, Martin GP, Jones SA, Akomeah FK. 2006. Dermal and transdermal drug delivery systems: Current and future prospects. Drug Deliv 13:175–187.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruls WA, Slaper JC, van der Leun JC, Berrins L. 1984. Transmission of human epidermis and stratum corneum as a function of thickness in the ultraviolet and visible wavelengths. Photochem Photobiol 40:485–494.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brunner TJ, Wick P, Manser P, Spohn P, Grass RN, Limbach LK, Bruinink A, Stark WJ. 2006. In vitro cytotoxicity of oxide nanoparticles: Comparison to asbestos, silica, and the effect of particle solubility. Environ Sci Technol 40:4374–4381.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruschi S, Thomas S. 2006. A review of the potential occupational health & safety implications of nanotechnology. In: Council ASaC, editor: accessed from http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/NR/rdonlyres/8FBDE049-ADB4-417D-8771-B9DA1D6BC7E6/0/ASCCReviewOHSImplicationsNanotechnology2006.pdf..
   Google Scholar
• Casey PS, Rossouw CJ, Boskovic S, Lawrence KA, Turney TW. 2006. Incorporation of dopants into the lattice of ZnO nanoparticles to control photoactivity. Superlattic Microst 39:97–106.
   Google Scholar
• Cayrol C, Sarraute J, Tarroux R, Redoules D, Charveron M, Gall Y. 1999. A mineral sunscreen affords genomic protection against ultraviolet (UV)B and UVA radiation: In vitro and in situ assays. Br J Dermatol 141:250–258.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cerimele D, Celleno L, Serri F. 1990. Physiological changes in ageing skin. Br J Dermatol 122:13–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Champion JA, Mitragotri S. 2006. Role of target geometry in phagocytosis. PNAS 103:4930–4934.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choi EH, Man MQ, Xu P, Xin S, Liu Z, Crumrine DA, Jiang YJ, Fluhr JW, Feingold KR, Elias PM, 2007. Stratum corneum acidification is impaired in moderately aged human and murine skin. J Invest Dermatol 127:2847–2856.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Churg A, Stevens B, Wright JL. 1998. Comparison of the uptake of fine and ultrafine TiO2 in a tracheal explant system. Am J Physiol 274:L81–86.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cross SE, Innes B, Roberts MS, Tsuzuki T, Robertson TA, McCormick P. 2007. Human skin penetration of sunscreen nanoparticles: In-vitro assessment of a novel micronized zinc oxide formulation. Skin Pharmacol Physiol 20:148–154.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Danovaro R, Bongiorni L, Corinaldesi C, Giovannelli D, Damiani E, Astolfi P, Greci L, Pusceddu A. 2008. Sunscreens cause coral bleaching by promoting viral infections. Environ Health Perspect 116:441–447.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darr D, Fridovich I. 1994. Free radicals in cutaneous biology. J Invest Dermatol 102:671–675.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daughton CG, Ternes TA. 1999. Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment: Agents of subtle change? Environ Health Perspect 107:907–938.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Jong WH, Hagens WI, Krystek P, Burger MC, Sips AJ, Geertsma RE. 2008. Particle size-dependent organ distribution of gold nanoparticles after intravenous administration. Biomaterials 29:1912–1919.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Derry JE, McLean WM, Freeman JB. 1983. A study of the percutaneous absorption from topically applied zinc oxide ointment. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 7:131–135.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diffey BL. 2002. Human exposure to solar ultraviolet radiation. J Cosmet Dermatol 1:124–130.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dineley KE, Votyakova TV, Reynolds IJ. 2003. Zinc inhibition of cellular energy production: Implications for mitochondria and neurodegeneration. J Neurochem 85:563–570.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donaldson K, Li XY, MacNee W. 1998. Ultrafine (nanometre) particle mediated lung injury. J. Aerosol Sci 29:553–560.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donaldson K, Stone V, Gilmour PS, Brown DM, MacNee W. 2000. Ultrafine particles: Mechanisms of lung injury. Roy Soc London Phil Tr A 358:2741–2749.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duffy GM, Pillai SC, McCormack DE. 2007. A novel processing route for the production of nanoparticulate zinc oxide using an isophthalate precursor. Smart Mater Struct 16:1379–1381.
   Google Scholar
• Dufour EK, Kumaravel T, Nohynek GJ, Kirkland D, Toutain H. 2006. Clastogenicity, photo-clastogenicity or pseudo-photo-clastogenicity: Genotoxic effects of zinc oxide in the dark, in pre-irradiated or simultaneously irradiated Chinese hamster ovary cells. Mut Res 607:215–224.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dussert A-S, Gooris E, Hemmerle J. 1997. Characterization of the mineral content of a physical sunscreen emulsion and its distribution onto human stratum corneum. Int J Cos Sci 19:119–129.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Elder A, Gelein R, Silva V, Feikert T, Opanashuk L, Carter J, Potter R, Maynard A, Ito Y, Finkelstein J, 2006. Translocation of inhaled ultrafine manganese oxide particles to the central nervous system. Environ Health Perspect 114:1172–1178.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elias PM. 1983. Epidermal lipids, barrier function, and desquamation. J Invest Dermatol 80:44S–49S.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Elias PM. 2005. Stratum corneum defensive functions: An integrated view. J Invest Dermatol 125:183–200.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EPA. 1995. Zinc oxide; Toxic chemical release reporting; Community right-to know. Federal Register 60:47334–47337.
   Google Scholar
• Environmental Working Group (EWG). 2009. Nanotechnology & sunscreens. Accessed from the website: http://www.ewg.org/cosmetics/report/sunscreen09/investigation/Nanotechnology-Sunscreens.
   Google Scholar
• Fedulov AV, Leme A, Yang Z, Dahl M, Lim R, Marian TJ, Kobzik L. 2008. Pulmonary exposure to particles during pregnancy causes increased neonatal asthma susceptibility. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 38:57–67.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fine JM, Gordon T, Chen LC, Kinney P, Falcone G, Beckett W. 1997. Metal fume fever: Characterization of clinical and plasma IL-6 responses in controlled human exposures to zinc oxide fume at and below the threshold limit value. J Occup Environ Med 39:722–726.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fine JM, Gordon T, Chen LC, Kinney P, Falcone G, Sparer J, Beckett WS. 2000. Characterization of clinical tolerance to inhaled zinc oxide in naive subjects and sheet metal workers. J Occup Environ Med 42:1085–1091.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fluhr JW, Behne MJ, Brown BE, Moskowitz DG, Selden C, Mao-Qiang M, Mauro TM, Elias PM, Feingold KR. 2004. Stratum corneum acidification in neonatal skin: Secretory phospholipase A2 and the sodium/hydrogen antiporter-1 acidify neonatal rat stratum corneum. J Invest Dermatol 122:320–329.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forestier S. 2008. Rationale for sunscreen development. J Am Acad Dermatol 58:S133–1389.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franklin NM, Rogers NJ, Apte SC, Batley GE, Gadd GE, Casey PS. 2007. Comparative toxicity of nanoparticulate ZnO, bulk ZnO, and ZnCl2 to a freshwater microalga (Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata): The importance of particle solubility. Environ Sci Technol 41:8484–8490.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frederick JE, Snell HE. 1988. Ultraviolet radiation levels during the Antarctic spring. Science 241:438–440.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frederickson CP, Koh JY, Bush AI. 2005. The neurobiology of zinc in health and disease. Nat Rev Neurosci 6:449–462.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fubini B. 1997. Surface reactivity in the pathogenic response to particulates. Environ Health Perspect 105:1013–1020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gamer AO, Leibold E, van Ravenzwaay B. 2006. The in vitro absorption of microfine zinc oxide and titanium dioxide through porcine skin. Toxicol in Vitro 20:301–307.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geiser M, Casaulta M, Kupferschmid B, Schulz H, Semmler-Behnke M, Kreyling W. 2008. The role of macrophages in the clearance of inhaled ultrafine titanium dioxie particles. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 38:371–376.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gelis C, Mavon A, Delverdier M, Paillous N, Vicendo P. 2002. Modifications of in vitro skin penetration under solar irradiation: Evaluation of flow-through diffusion cells. Photochem Photobiol 75:598–604.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghadially R, Brown BE, Sequeira-Marin SM, Feingold KR, Elias PM. 1995. The aged epidermal permeability barrier. J Clin Invest 95:2281–2290.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gojova A, Guo B, Kota RS, Rutledge JC, Kennedy IM, Barakat AI. 2007. Induction of inflammation in vascular endothelial cells by metal oxide nanoparticles: Effect of particle composition. Environ Health Perspect 115:403–409.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein AM, Abramovits W. 2003. Ceramides and the stratum corneum: Structure, function, and new methods to promote repair. Int J Dermatol 42:256–259.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gopalan R, Osman I, Amani A, Matas Md, Anderson D. 2009. The effect of zinc oxide and titanium dioxide nanoparticles in the comet assay with UVA photoactivation of human sperm and lymphocytes. Nanotox 3:33–39.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordon T, Chen LC, Fine JM, Schlesinger RB, Su WY, Kimmel TA, Amdur MO. 1992. Pulmonary effects of inhaled zinc oxide in human subjects, guinea pigs, rats, and rabbits. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 53:503–509.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gulson B, Gomez L, Casey P, Korsch M, Greenoak G, Trotter J, McCulloch M, McCall MJ. 2009. Are zinc oxide particles in sunscreens absorbed through the skin? 4th International Conference on Nanotechnology – Occupational and Environmental Health, Helsinki: page 85 of programme.
   Google Scholar
• Hachem J-P, Crumrine D, Fluhr J, Brown BE, Feingold KR, Elias PM. 2003. pH directly regulates epidermal permeability barrier homeostasis, and stratum corneum integrity/cohesion. J Invest Dermatol 121:345–353.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hagens WI, Oomen AG, de Jong WH, Cassee FR, Sips AJ. 2007. What do we (need to) know about the kinetic properties of nanoparticles in the body? Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 49:217–229.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hallmans G. 1977a. Treatment of burns with zinc-tape. A study of local absorption of zinc in humans. Scand J Plast Reconstr Surg 11:155–161.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hallmans G. 1977b. Zinc resorption from zinc-tape during wound healing. An experimental study in rats. Scand J Plast Reconstr Surg 11:27–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hallmans G. 1978. Local absorption of zinc from wounds treated with various zinc-compounds. Acta Derm Venereol 58:251–256.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hallmans G, Nilsson AM, Sjostrom R. 1978. Absorption, retention and excretion of 65Zn in rats with wounds treated with 65Zn-labelled zinc tape. Scand J Plast Reconstr Surg 12:111–117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haratake A, Uchinda Y, Schmuth M, Tanno O, Yasuda R, Epstein JH, Elias PM, Holleran WM. 1997. UVB-induced alterations in permeability barrier function: Roles for epidermal hyperproliferation and thymocyte-mediated response. J Invest Dermatol 108:769–775.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harvell JD, Maibach HI. 1994. Percutaneous absorption and inflammation in aged skin: A review. J Am Acad Dermatol 31:1015–1021.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayashi S, Takeshita H, Nagao N, Nikaido O, Miwa N. 2001. The relationship between UVB screening and cytoprotection by microcorpuscular ZnO or ascorbate against DNA photodamage and membrane injuries in keratinocytes by oxidative stress. J Photochem Photobiol B 64:27–35.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Heinlaan M, Ivask A, Blinova I, Dubourguier HC, Kahru A. 2008. Toxicity of nanosized and bulk ZnO, CuO and TiO2 to bacteria Vibrio fischeri and crustaceans Daphnia magna and Thamnocephalus platyurus. Chemosphere 71:1308–1316.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hermanns-Le T, Uhoda I, Smitz S, Pierard GE. 2004. Skin tensile properties revisited during ageing. Where now, what next? J Cosmet Dermatol 3:35–40.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hext PM, Tomenson JA, Thompson P. 2005. Titanium dioxide: Inhalation toxicology and epidemiology. Ann Occup Hyg 49:461–472.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hidaka H, Kobayashi H, Koike T, Sato T, Serpone N. 2006. DNA damage photoinduced by cosmetic pigments and sunscreen agents under solar exposure and artificial UV illumination. J Oleo Sci 55:249–261.
   Google Scholar
• Hohr D, Steinfartz Y, Schins RPF, Knaapen AM, Martra G, Fubini B, Borm PJA. 2002. The surface area rather than the surface coating determines the acute inflammatory response after instillation of fine and ultrafine TiO2 in the rat. Int J Hyg Environ Health 205:239–244.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hostynek JJ. 2003. Factors determining percutaneous metal absorption. Food Chem Toxicol 41:327–345.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang Z, Zheng X, Yan D, Yin G, Liao X, Kang Y, Yao Y, Huang D, Hao B. 2008. Toxicological effect of ZnO nanoparticles based on bacteria. Langmuir 24:4140–4144.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hussain N, Jaitley V, Florence A. 2001. Recent advances in the understanding of uptake of microparticulates across the gastrointestinal lymphatics. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 50:107–142.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jeng HA, Swanson J. 2006. Toxicity of metal oxide nanoparticles in mammalian cells. J Environ Sci Health A 41:2699–2711.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jiang SJ, Chu AW, Lu ZF, Pan MH, Che DF, Zhou X. 2007. Ultraviolet B-induced alterations of the skin barrier and epidermal calcium gradient. Exp Dermatol 16:985–992.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jiang W, Mashayekhi H, Xing B. 2009. Bacterial toxicity comparison between nano- and micro-scaled oxide particles. Environ Pollut 157:1619–1625.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones N, Ray B, Ranjit KT, Manna AC. 2008. Antibacterial activity of ZnO nanoparticle suspensions on a broad spectrum of microorganisms. FEMS Microbiol Lett 279:71–76.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelleher P, Pacheco K, Newman LS. 2000. Inorganic dust pneumonias: The metal-related parenchymal disorders. Environ Health Perspect 108:685–696.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kendall M, Tetley TD, Wigzell E, Hutton B, Nieuwenhuijsen M, Luckham P. 2002. Lung lining liquid modified PM2.5 in favor of particle aggregation: A protective mechanism. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 282:L109–114.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleinwechter H, Janzen C, Knipping J, Wiggers H, Roth P. 2002. Formation and properties of ZnO nano-particles from gas phase synthesis processes. J Mater Sci 37:4349–4360.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kreuter J. 2004. Influence of the surface properties on nanoparticle-mediated transport of drugs to the brain. J Nanosci Nanotechnol 4:484–488.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kreyling W, Semmler-Behnke M, Moller W. 2006. Ultrafine particle-lung interactions: Does size matter? J Aerosol Med 19:74–83.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kreyling WG, Semmler M, Erbe F, Mayer P, Tanenaka S, Schulz H, Oberdörster G, Ziesenis A. 2002. Translocation of ultrafine insoluble iridium particles from lung epithelium to extrapulmonary organs is size dependent but very low. J Toxicol Environ Health A 65:1513–1530.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krones CJ, Klosterhalfen B, Butz N, Hoelzl F, Junge K, Stumpf M, Peiper C, Klinge U, Schumpelick V. 2005. Effect of zinc pretreatment on pulmonary endothelial cells in vitro and pulmonary function in a porcine model of endotoxemia. J Surg Res 123:251–256.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kuo T-R, Wu C-L, Hsu C-T, Lo W, Chiang S-J, Lin S-J, Dong C-Y, Chen C-C. 2009. Chemical enhancer induced changes in the mechanisms of transdermal delivery of zinc oxide nanoparticles. Biomaterials 30:3002–3008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuschner WG, D’Alessandro A, Wong H, Blanc PD. 1997. Early pulmonary cytokine responses to zinc oxide fume inhalation. Environ Res 75:7–11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lademann J, Otberg N, Jacobi U, Hoffman RM, Blume-Peytavi U. 2005. Follicular penetration and targeting. J Invest Dermatol Symp Proc 10:301–303.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lademann J, Otberg N, Richter H, Weigmann HJ, Lindemann U, Schaefer H, Sterry W. 2001. Investigation of follicular penetration of topically applied substances. Skin Pharmacol Appl Skin Physiol 14:17–22.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lademann J, Weigmann H, Rickmeyer C, Barthelmes H, Schaefer H, Mueller G, Sterry W. 1999. Penetration of titanium dioxide microparticles in a sunscreen formulation into the horny layer and the follicular orifice. Skin Pharmacol Appl Skin Physiol 12:247–256.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lam HF, Conner MW, Rogers AE, Fitzgerald S, Amdur MO. 1985. Functional and morphologic changes in the lungs of guinea pigs exposed to freshly generated ultrafine zinc oxide. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 78:29–38.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lam HF, Peisch R, Amdur MO. 1982. Changes in lung volumes and diffusing capacity in guinea pigs exposed to a combination of sulfur dioxide and submicron zinc oxide mixed in a humidified furnace. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 66:427–433.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewtas J. 2007. Air pollution combustion emissions: Characterization of causative agents and mechanisms associated with cancer, reproductive, and cardiovascular effects. Mut Res 636:95–133.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Limbach LK, Li Y, Grass RN, Brunner TJ, Hintermann MA, Muller M, Gunther D, Stark WJ. 2005. Oxide nanoparticle uptake in human lung fibroblasts: Effects of particle size, agglomeration, and diffusion at low concentrations. Environ Sci Technol 39:9370–9376.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin D, Xing B. 2007. Phytotoxicity of nanoparticles: Inhibition of seed germination and root growth. Environ Pollut 150:243–250.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lockman PR, Koziara JM, Mumper RJ, Allen DD. 2004. Nanoparticle surface charges alter blood-brain barrier integrity and permeability. J Drug Target 12:635–641.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lundqvist M, Stigler J, Elia G, Lynch I, Cedervall T, Dawson KA. 2008. Nanoparticle size and surface properties determine the protein corona with possible implications for biological impacts. PNAS 105:14265–14270.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynch I, Dawson KA. 2008. Protein-nanoparticle interactions. NanoToday 3:40–47.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madronich S, McKenzie RL, Bjorn LO, Caldwell MM. 1998. Changes in biologically active ultraviolet radiation reaching the earth’s surface. J Photochem Photobiol B 46:5–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maier T, Korting HC. 2005. Sunscreens – which and what for? Skin Pharmacol Physiol 18:253–262.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Makri A, Goveia M, Balbus J, Parkin R. 2004. Children’s susceptibility to chemicals: A review by developmental stage. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev 7:417–435.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maret W. 1995. Metallothionein/disulfide interactions, oxidative stress, and the mobilization of cellular zinc. Neurochem Int 27:111–117.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Marrot L, Meunier JR. 2008. Skin DNA photodamage and its biological consequences. J Am Acad Dermatol 58:S139–148.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matts PJ. 2006. Solar ultraviolet radiation: Definitions and terminology. Dermatol Clin 24:1–8.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Maynard AD, Baron PA, Foley M, Shvedova AA, Kisin ER, Castranova V. 2004. Exposure to carbon nanotube material: Aerosol release during the handling of unrefined single-walled carbon nanotube material. J Toxicol Environ Health A 67:87–107.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maynard AD, Kuempel ED. 2005. Airborne nanostructured particles and occupational health. J Nanopart Res 7:587-614.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchnick MA, Fairhurst D, Pinnell SR. 1999. Microfine zinc oxide (z-cote) as a photostable UVA/UVB sunblock agent. J Am Acad Dermatol 40:85–89.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monteiller C, Tran L, MacNee W, Faux SP, Jones A, Miller B, Donaldson K. 2007. The pro-inflammatory effects of low-toxicity low-solubility particles, nanoparticles and fine particles, on epithelial cells in vitro: The role of surface area. Occup Environ Med 64:609–615.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morrow PE. 1988. Possible mechanisms to explain dust overloading of the lungs. Fund Appl Toxicol 10:369–384.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mortensen LJ, Oberdörster G, Pentland AP, DeLouise LA. 2008. In vivo skin penetration of quantum dot nanoparticles in the murine model: The effect of UVR. NanoLetters 8:2779–2787.
   Google Scholar
• Nanoderm. 2007. Quality of skin as a barrier to ultra-fine particles. Available from the website: www.uni-leipzig.de/~nanoderm/Downloads/Nanoderm_Final_Summary.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Nash JF, Tanner PR, Matts PJ. 2006. Ultraviolet A radiation: Testing and labeling for sunscreen products. Dermatol Clin 24:63–74.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nemmar A, Hoet PH, Vanquickenborne B, Dinsdale D, Thomeer M, Hoylaerts MF, Vanbilloen H, Mortelmans L, Nemery B. 2002. Passage of inhaled particles into blood circulation in humans. Circulation 105:411–414.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nemmar A, Hoylaerts MF, Hoet PHM, Nemery B. 2004. Possible mechanisms of the cardiovascular effects of inhaled particles: Systemic translocation and prothrombotic effects. Toxicol Lett 149:243–253.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nikula KJ, Avila KJ, Griffith WC, Mauderly JL. 1997. Lung tissue responses and sites of particle retention differ between rats and cynomolgus monkeys exposed chronically to diesel exhaust and coal dust. Fundam Appl Toxicol 37:37–53.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nohynek GJ, Lademann J, Ribaud C, Roberts MS. 2007. Grey goo on the skin? Nanotechnology, cosmetic and sunscreen safety. Crit Rev Toxicol 37:251–277.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nyborg JK, Peersen OB. 2004. That zincing feeling: The effects of EDTA on the behaviours of zinc-binding transcriptional regulators. Biochem J 381:e3–4.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Oberdörster G. 2000. Toxicology of ultrafine particles: In vivo studies. Roy Soc London Phil Tr A 358:2719–2740.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oberdörster G. 2001. Pulmonary effects of inhaled ultrafine particles. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 74:1–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oberdörster G, Ferin J, Lehnert BE. 1994. Correlation between particle size, in vivo particle persistence, and lung injury. Environ Health Perspect 102:173–179.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oberdörster G, Sharp Z, Atudorei V, Elder A, Gelein R, Lunts A, Kreyling W, Cox C. 2002. Extrapulmonary translocation of ultrafine carbon particles following whole-body inhalation exposure of rats. J Toxicol Environ Health A 65:1531–1543.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Otberg N, Richter H, Knuttel A, Schaefer H, Sterry W, Lademann J. 2004. Laser spectroscopic methods for the characterization of open and closed follicles. Laser Phys Lett 1:46–49.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park SB, Kang YC. 1997. Photocatalytic activity of nanometer size ZnO particles prepared by spray pyrolysis. J Aerosol Sci 28:S473–474.
   Google Scholar
• Paschke MW, Perry LG, Redente EF. 2006. Zinc toxicity thresholds for reclamation forb species. Wat Air Soil Pollut 140:317–330.
   Google Scholar
• Paschke MW, Redente EF, Levy DB. 2000. Zinc toxicity thresholds for important reclamation grass species of the western United States. Environ Toxicol Chem 19:2751–2751.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peck EJ, Ray WJJ. 1971. Metal complexes of phosphoglucomutase in vivo. Alterations induced by insulin. J Biol Chem 246:1160–1167.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Perl AS. 1993. Zinc oxide. Am Ceramic Soc Bull 72:122–123.
   Google Scholar
• Pinnell SR, Fairhurst D, Gillies R, Mitchnick MA, Kollias N. 2000. Microfine zinc oxide is a superior sunscreen ingredient to microfine titanium dioxide. Dermatol Surg 26:309–314.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pirot F, Millet J, Kalia YN, Humbert P. 1996. In vitro study of percutaneous absorption, cutaneous bioavailability and bioequivalence of zinc and copper from five topical formulations. Skin Pharmacol 9:259–269.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Popov AP, Priezzhev AV, Lademann J, Myllylä R. 2005. TiO2 nanoparticles as an effective UV-B radiation skin-protective compound in sunscreens. J Phys D: Appl Phys 38:2564–2570.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prasad AS, Bao B, Beck FWJ, Kucuk O, Sarkar FH. 2004. Antioxidant effect of zinc in humans. Free Radic Biol Med 37:1182–1190.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pryor JL, Hughes C, Foster W, Hales BF, Robaire B. 2000. Critical windows of exposure for children’s health: The reproductive system in animals and humans. Environ Health Perspect 108:491–503.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rampaul A, Parkin IP, Cramer LP. 2007. Damaging and protective properties of inorganic components of sunscreens applied to cultured human skin cells. J Photochem Photobiol A, Chem 191:138–148.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reddy KM, Feris K, Bell J, Wingett DG, Hanley C, Punnoose A. 2007. Selective toxicity of zinc oxide nanoparticles to prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems. Appl Phys Lett 90:213902-1–213902-3.
   Google Scholar
• Renwick LC, Donaldson K, Clouter A. 2001. Impairment of alveolar macrophage phagocytosis by ultrafine particles. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 172:119–127.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts M, Roberts M, Robertson T, Sanchez W, Thorling C, Zou Y, Zhao X, Becker W, Zvyagin A. 2008. In vitro and in vivo imaging of xenobiotic transport in human skin and in the rat liver. Journal of Biophotonics 1:478–493.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rostan EF, DeBuys HV, Madey DL, Pinnell SR. 2002. Evidence supporting zinc as an important antioxidant for skin. Int J Dermatol 41:606–611.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothen-Rutischauser B, Schurch S, Haenni B, Kapp N, Gehr P. 2006. Interaction of fine particles and nanoparticles with red blood cells visualized with advanced microscopic techniques. Environ Sci Technol 40:4353–4359.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rouse JG, Yang J, Ryman-Rasmussen JP, Barron AR, Monteiro-Riviere NA. 2007. Effects of mechanical flexion on the penetration of fullerene amino acid-derivatized peptide nanoparticles through skin. Nano Lett 7:155–160.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryman-Rasmussen JP, Riviere JE, Monteiro-Riviere NA. 2006. Penetration of intact skin by quantum dots with diverse physicochemical properties. Toxicol Sci 91:159–165.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sakurai H, Yasui H, Yamada Y, Nishimura H, Shigemoto M. 2005. Detection of reactive oxygen species in the skin of live mice and rats exposed to UVA light: A research review on chemiluminescence and trials for UVA protection. Photochem Photobiol Sci 4:715–720.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sander CS, Chang H, Hamm F, Elsner P, Thiele JJ. 2004. Role of oxidative stress and the antioxidant network in cutaneous carcinogenesis. Int J Dermatol 43:326–335.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sato J, Denda M, Chang S, Elias PM, Feingold KR. 2002. Abrupt decreases in environmental humidity induce abnormalities in permeability barrier homeostasis. J Invest Dermatol 119:900–904.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sawai J. 2003. Quantitative evaluation of antibacterial activities of metallic oxide powders (ZnO, MgO and CaO) by conductimetric assay. J Microbiol Meth 54:177–182.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sayes CM, Reed KL, Warheit DB. 2007. Assessing toxicity of fine and nanoparticles: Comparing in vitro measurements to in vivo pulmonary toxicity profiles. Toxicol Sci 97:163–180.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scientific Committee on Consumer Products (SCCP). 2006. Basic criteria for the in vitro assessment of dermal absorption of cosmetic ingredients. Scientific Committee on Consumer Products SCCP/0970/60:
   Google Scholar
• Schlumpf M, Cotton B, Conscience M, Haller V, Steinmann B, Lichtensteiger W. 2001. In vitro and in vivo estrogenicity of UV screens. Environ Health Perspect 109:239–244.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott RC, Walker M, Dugard PH. 1986. A comparison of the in vitro permeability properties of human and some laboratory animal skins. Int J Cos Sci 8:189–194.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Selevan SG, Kimmel CA, Mendola P. 2000. Identifying critical windows of exposure for children’s health. Environ Health Perspect 108:451–455.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Semmler M, Seitz J, Erbe F, Mayer P, Heyder J, Oberdörster G, Kreyling WG. 2004. Long-term clearance kinetics of inhaled ultrafine insoluble iridium particles from the rat lung, including transient translocation into secondary organs. Inhal Toxicol 16:453–459.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sensi SL, Yin HZ, Carriedo SG, Rao SS, Weiss JH. 1999. Preferential Zn2+ influx through Ca2+-permeable AMPA/kainate channels triggers prolonged mitochondrial superoxide production. PNAS 96:2414–2419.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Simons TJB. 1991. Intracellular free zinc and zinc buffering in human red blood cells. J Memb Biol 123:63–71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• St. Croix CM, Leelavanichul K, Watkins SC, Kagan VE, Pitt BR. 2005. Nitric oxide and zinc homeostasis in acute lung injury. Proc Am Thorac Soc 2:236–242.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Suzuki T, Chow CW, Downey GP. 2008. Role of innate immune cells and their products in lung immunopathology. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 40:1348–1361.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tabata Y, Ikada Y. 1988. Effect of the size and surface charge of polymer microspheres on their phagocytosis by macrophage. Biomaterials 9:356–362.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takenaka S, Karg E, Roth C, Schulz H, Ziesenis A, Heinzmann U, Schramel P, Heyder J. 2001. Pulmonary and systemic distribution of inhaled ultrafine silver particles in rats. Environ Health Perspect 109:547–551.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tinkle SS, Antonini JM, Rich BA, Roberts JR, Salmen R, DePree K, Adkins EJ. 2003. Skin as a route of exposure and sensitization in chronic beryllium disease. Environ Health Perspect 111:1202–1208.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tran CL, Buchanan D, Cullen RT, Searl A, Jones AD, Donaldson K. 2000. Inhalation of poorly soluble particles. II. Influence of particle surface area on inflammation and clearance. Inhal Toxicol 12:1113–1126.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsai SJ, Ashter A, Ada E, Mead JL, Barry CF, Ellenbecker MJ. 2008. Airborne nanoparticle release associated with the compounding of nanocomposites using nanoalumina as fillers. Aeros Air Qual Res 8:160–177.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsuchiya T, Oguri I, Yamakoshi YN, Miyata N. 1996. Novel harmful effects of [60]fullerene on mouse embryos in vitro and in vivo. FEBS Lett 393:139–145.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tupler R, Perini G, Green MG. 2001. Expressing the human genome. Nature 409:832–833.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Ravenzwaay B, Leibold E. 2004. The significance of in vitro rat skin absorption studies to human risk assessment. Toxicol in Vitro 18:219–225.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viswanathan R, Gupta RB. 2003. Formation of zinc oxide nanoparticles in supercritical water. J Supercrit Fluids 27:187–193.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vogt A, Combadiere B, Hadam S, Stieler KM, Lademann J, Schaefer H, Autran B, Sterry W, Blume-Peytavi U. 2006. 40 nm, but not 750 or 1,500 nm, nanoparticles enter epidermal CD1a+ cells after transcutaneous application on human skin. J Invest Dermatol 126:1316–1322.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vogt A, Mandt N, Lademann J, Schaefer H, Blume-Peytavi U. 2005. Follicular targeting – a promising tool in selective dermatotherapy. J Invest Dermatol Symp Proc 10:252–255.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volkheimer G. 1974. Passage of particles through the wall of the gastrointestinal tract. Environ Health Perspect 9:215–225.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wagner H, Kostka K-H, Lehr C-M, Schaefer UF. 2003. pH profiles in human skin: Influence of two in vitro test systems for drug delivery testing. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 55:57–65.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wahie S, Lloyd JJ, Farr PM. 2007. Sunscreen ingredients and labelling: A survey of products available in the UK. Clin Exp Dermatol 32:359–364.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Waller JM, Maibach HI. 2005. Age and skin structure and function, a quantitative approach (I): Blood flow, pH, thickness, and ultrasound echogenicity. Skin Res Technol 11:221–235.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang B, Feng W, Wang M, Wang T, Gu Y, Zhu M, Ouyang H, Shi J, Zhang F, Zhao Y, 2008. Acute toxicological impact of nano- and submicro-scaled zinc oxide powder on healthy adult mice. J Nanopart Res 10:263–276.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang B, Feng WY, Wang TC, Jia G, Wang M, Shi JW, Zhang F, Zhao YL, Chai ZF. 2006. Acute toxicity of nano- and micro-scale zinc powder in healthy adult mice. Toxicol Lett 161:115–123.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang H, Xie C, Zhang W, Cai S, Yang Z, Gui Y. 2007. Comparison of dye degradation efficiency using ZnO powders with various size scales. J Haz Mat 141:645–652.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wesselkamper SC, Chen LC, Gordon T. 2001a. Development of pulmonary tolerance in mice exposed to zinc oxide fumes. Toxicol Sci 60:144–151.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wesselkamper SC, Chen LC, Kleeberger SR, Gordon T. 2001b. Genetic variability in the development of pulmonary tolerance to inhaled pollutants in inbred mice. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 281:L1200–1209.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiebert P, Sanchez-Crespo A, Falk R, Philipson K, Lundin A, Larsson S, Moller W, Kreyling W, Svartengren M. 2006a. No significant translocation of inhaled 35-nm carbon particles to the circulation in humans. Inhal Toxicol 18:741–747.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiebert P, Sanchez-Crespo A, Seitz J, Falk R, Philipson K, Kreyling W, Moller W, Sommerer K, Larsson S, Svartengren M. 2006b. Negligible clearance of ultrafine particles retained in healthy and affected human lungs. Eur Respir J 28:286–290.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiseman DA, Wells SM, Wilham J, Hubbard M, Welker JE, Black SM. 2006. Endothelial response to stress from exogenous Zn2+ resembles that of NO-mediated nitrosative stress, and is protected by MT-1 overexpression. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 291:555–568.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolf R, Wolf D, Morganti P, Ruocco V. 2001. Sunscreens. Clin Dermatol 19:452–459.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu J, Liu W, Xue C, Znou S, Lan F, Bi L, Xu H, Yang X, Zeng F-D. 2009. Toxicity and penetration of TiO2 nanoparticles in hairless mice and porcine skin after subchronic dermal exposure. Toxicol Lett 191:1–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yamamoto O. 2001. Influence of particle size on the antibacterial activity of zinc oxide. Int J Inorgan Mat 3:643–646.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yamamoto O, Komatsu M, Sawai J, Nakagawa H. 2004. Effect of lattice constant of zinc oxide on antibacterial characteristics. J Mater Sci Mater Med 15:847–851.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang H, Liu C, Yang D, Zhang H, Xi Z. 2008. Comparative study of cytotoxicity, oxidative stress and genotoxicity induced by four typical nanomaterials: The role of particle size, shape and composition. J Appl Toxicol 29:69–78.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang Z, Xie C. 2006. Zn2+ release from zinc and zinc oxide particles in simulated uterine solution. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 47:140–145.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhai H, Maibach HI. 2001. Effects of skin occlusion on percutaneous absorption: An overview. Skin Pharmacol Physiol 14:1–10.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhu X, Wang J, Zhang X, Chang Y, Chen Y. 2009. The impact of ZnO nanoparticle aggregates on the embryonic development of zebrafish (Danio rerio). Nanotechnology 20:195103.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhu X, Zhu L, Duan Z, Qi R, Li Y, Lang Y. 2008. Comparative toxicity of several metal oxide nanoparticle aqueous suspensions to zebrafish (Danio rerio) early developmental stage. J Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng 43:278–284.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zvyagin A, Zhao X, Gierden A, Sanchez W, Ross J, Roberts M. 2008. Imaging of zinc oxide nanoparticle penetration in human skin in vitro and in vivo. Journal of Biomedical Optics 13:064031.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar