Wheelchair propulsion biomechanics and wheelers' quality of life: an exploratory review

References

• Simpson RC, Lopresti EF, Cooper RA. How many people would benefit from a smart wheelchair? J Rehabil Res Dev 2008;45:53–72.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S.Census Bureau. Americans with disabilities in 2002. Internet. Electronic Citation. www.census.gov/population/www/pop-profile/files/dynamic/Disability.pdf . Last accessed September 2010.
   Google Scholar
• van der Woude LH, de Groot S, Janssen TW. Manual wheelchairs: research and innovation in rehabilitation, sports, daily life and health. Med Eng Phys 2006;28:905–915.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haneline M. Understanding literature review designs. J Am Chiropr Assoc 2007;42:19–23.
   Google Scholar
• Sisto SA, Forrest GF, Faghri PD. Technology for mobility and quality of life in spinal cord injury. IEEE Eng Med Biol Mag 2008;27:56–68.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cooper RA, Fitzgerald SG, Boninger ML, Prins K, Rentschler AJ, Arva J, O'connor TJ. Evaluation of a pushrim-activated, power-assisted wheelchair. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2001;82:702–708.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levy CE, Chow JW, Tillman MD, Hanson C, Donohue T, Mann WC. Variable-ratio pushrim-activated power-assist wheelchair eases wheeling over a variety of terrains for elders. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2004;85:104–112.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levy CE, Chow JW. Pushrim-activated power-assist wheelchairs: elegance in motion. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2004;83:166–167.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ulrich Alber GmbH. Internet. Electronic Citation. www.alber.de/en/products/e-motion.php. Last accessed September 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Yamaha Motor Co. Ltd. Internet. Electronic Citation. www.yamaha-motor.co.jp/global/news/2000/01/18/wheelchair.html. Last accessed September 2010.
   Google Scholar
• NEXT Mobility. Internet. Electronic Citation. www.nextmobilitynow.com. Last accessed September 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Finley MA, Rodgers MM. Effect of 2-speed geared manual wheelchair propulsion on shoulder pain and function. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2007;88:1622–1627.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howarth SJ, Pronovost LM, Polgar JM, Dickerson CR, Callaghan JP. Use of a geared wheelchair wheel to reduce propulsive muscular demand during ramp ascent: analysis of muscle activation and kinematics. Clin Biomech 2010;25:21–28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magic Wheels Inc. Internet. Electronic Citation. www.magicwheels.com. Last accessed September 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Di Marco A, Russell M, Masters M. Standards for wheelchair prescription. Aust Occup Ther J 2003;50:30–33.
   Google Scholar
• Higgs C. Science, research, and special populations: the view from biomechanics. In: Berridge ME, Ward GR, editors. International perspectives on adapted physical activity, Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers; 1987. pp 193–201.
   Google Scholar
• Paralyzed Veterans of America. Internet. Electronic Citation. www.pvamagazines.com/sns/. Last accessed September 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Hatze H. Letter: the meaning of the term ‘biomechanics’. J Biomech 1974;7:189–190.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLaurin CA, Brubaker CE. Biomechanics and the wheelchair. Prosthet Orthot Int 1991;15:24–37.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chow JW, Millikan TA, Carlton LG, Chae WS, Lim YT, Morse MI. Kinematic and electromyographic analysis of wheelchair propulsion on ramps of different slopes for young men with paraplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2009;90:271–278.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hurd WJ, Morrow MM, Kaufman KR, An KN. Influence of varying level terrain on wheelchair propulsion biomechanics. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2008;87:984–991.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hurd WJ, Morrow MM, Kaufman KR, An KN. Biomechanic evaluation of upper-extremity symmetry during manual wheelchair propulsion over varied terrain. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2008;89:1996–2002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hurd WJ, Morrow MM, Kaufman KR, An KN. Wheelchair propulsion demands during outdoor community ambulation. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 2009;19:942–947.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Groot S, Dallmeijer AJ, Kilkens OJ, van Asbeck FW, Nene AV, Angenot EL, Post MW, van der Woude LH. Course of gross mechanical efficiency in handrim wheelchair propulsion during rehabilitation of people with spinal cord injury: a prospective cohort study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2005;86:1452–1460.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goosey VL, Campbell IG. Pushing economy and propulsion technique of wheelchair racers at three speeds. Adapt Phys Activ Q 1998;15:36–50.
   Google Scholar
• Richter WM, Rodriguez R, Woods KR, Axelson PW. Stroke pattern and handrim biomechanics for level and uphill wheelchair propulsion at self-selected speeds. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2007;88:81–87.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richter WM, Rodriguez R, Woods KR, Axelson PW. Consequences of a cross slope on wheelchair handrim biomechanics. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2007;88:76–80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanderson DJ, Sommer HJ. Kinematic features of wheelchair racing propulsion. J Biomech 1985;18:423–429.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vanlandewijck YC, Spaepen AJ, Lysens RJ. Wheelchair propulsion efficiency: movement pattern adaptions to speed changes. Med Sci Sport Exerc 1994;26:1373–1381.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veeger HEJ, van der Woude LHV, Rozendal RH. Wheelchair propulsion technique at different speeds. Scand J Rehab Med 1989;21:197–203.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• de Groot S, Veeger DH, Hollander AP, van der Woude LH. Wheelchair propulsion technique and mechanical efficiency after 3 wk of practice. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2002;34:756–766.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Groot S, Veeger HE, Hollander AP, van der Woude LH. Effect of wheelchair stroke pattern on mechanical efficiency. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2004;83:640–649.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Groot S, de BM, Noomen SP, van der Woude LH. Mechanical efficiency and propulsion technique after 7 weeks of low-intensity wheelchair training. Clin Biomech 2008;23:434–441.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goosey VL, Campbell IG, Fowler NE. The relationship between three-dimensional wheelchair propulsion techniques and pushing economy. J Appl Biomech 1998;14:412–427.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodgers MM, Keyser RE, Gardner ER, Russell PJ, Gorman PH. Influence of trunk flexion on biomechanics of wheelchair propulsion. J Rehabil Res Dev 2000;37:283–295.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodgers MM, Keyser RE, Rasch EK, Gorman PH, Russell PJ. Influence of training on biomechanics of wheelchair propulsion. J Rehabil Res Dev 2001;38:505–511.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rozendaal LA, Veeger HE, van der Woude LH. The push force pattern in manual wheelchair propulsion as a balance between cost and effect. J Biomech 2003;36:239–247.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Woude LH, Veeger HE, Rozendal RH. Propulsion technique in hand rim wheelchair ambulation. J Med Eng Technol 1989;13:136–141.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veeger HE, van der Woude LH, Rozendal RH. Within-cycle characteristics of the wheelchair push in sprinting on a wheelchair ergometer. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1991;23:264–271.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boninger ML, Souza AL, Cooper RA, Fitzgerald SG, Koontz AM, Fay BT. Propulsion patterns and pushrim biomechanics in manual wheelchair propulsion. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2002;83:718–723.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chow JW, Millikan TA, Carlton LG, Chae W, Morse MI. Effect of resistance load on biomechanical characteristics of racing wheelchair propulsion over a roller system. J Biomech 2000;33:601–608.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chow JW, Millikan TA, Carlton LG, Morse MI, Chae WS. Biomechanical comparison of two racing wheelchair propulsion techniques. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001;33:476–484.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collinger JL, Boninger ML, Koontz AM, Price R, Sisto SA, Tolerico ML, Cooper RA. Shoulder biomechanics during the push phase of wheelchair propulsion: a multisite study of persons with paraplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2008;89:667–676.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Desroches G, Aissaoui R, Bourbonnais D. Relationship between resultant force at the pushrim and the net shoulder joint moments during manual wheelchair propulsion in elderly persons. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2008;89:1155–1161.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koontz AM, Cooper RA, Boninger ML, Souza AL, Fay BT. Shoulder kinematics and kinetics during two speeds of wheelchair propulsion. J Rehabil Res Dev 2002;39:635–649.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kulig K, Rao SS, Mulroy SJ, Newsam CJ, Gronley JK, Bontrager EL, Perry J. Shoulder joint kinetics during the push phase of wheelchair propulsion. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1998;354:132–143.
   Google Scholar
• Mulroy SJ, Gronley JK, Newsam CJ, Perry J. Electromyographic activity of shoulder muscles during wheelchair propulsion by paraplegic persons. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1996;77:187–193.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Price R, Ashwell ZR, Chang MW, Boninger ML, Koontz AM, Sisto SA. Upper-limb joint power and its distribution in spinal cord injured wheelchair users: steady-state self-selected speed versus maximal acceleration trials. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2007;88:456–463.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kwarciak AM, Sisto SA, Yarossi M, Price R, Komaroff E, Boninger ML. Redefining the manual wheelchair stroke cycle: identification and impact of nonpropulsive pushrim contact. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2009;90:20–26.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lighthall-Haubert L, Requejo PS, Mulroy SJ, Newsam CJ, Bontrager E, Gronley JK, Perry J. Comparison of shoulder muscle electromyographic activity during standard manual wheelchair and push-rim activated power assisted wheelchair propulsion in persons with complete tetraplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2009;90:1904–1915.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rice I, Impink B, Niyonkuru C, Boninger M. Manual wheelchair stroke characteristics during an extended period of propulsion. Spinal Cord 2009;47:413–417.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Requejo PS, Lee SE, Mulroy SJ, Haubert LL, Bontrager EL, Gronley JK, Perry J. Shoulder muscular demand during lever-activated vs pushrim wheelchair propulsion in persons with spinal cord injury. J Spinal Cord Med 2008;31:568–577.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corfman TA, Cooper RA, Boninger ML, Koontz AM, Fitzgerald SG. Range of motion and stroke frequency differences between manual wheelchair propulsion and pushrim-activated power-assisted wheelchair propulsion. J Spinal Cord Med 2003;26:135–140.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boninger ML, Cooper RA, Robertson RN, Shimada SD. Three-dimensional pushrim forces during two speeds of wheelchair propulsion. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 1997;76:420–426.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koontz AM, Roche BM, Collinger JL, Cooper RA, Boninger ML. Manual wheelchair propulsion patterns on natural surfaces during start-up propulsion. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2009;90:1916–1923.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boninger ML, Cooper RA, Robertson RN, Shimada SD. Three-dimensional pushrim forces during two speeds of wheelchair propulsion. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 1997;76:420–426.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boninger ML, Cooper RA, Shimada SD, Rudy TE. Shoulder and elbow motion during two speeds of wheelchair propulsion: a description using a local coordinate system. Spinal Cord 1998;36:418–426.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alm M, Saraste H, Norrbrink C. Shoulder pain in persons with thoracic spinal cord injury: prevalence and characteristics. J Rehabil Med 2008;40:277–283.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brose SW, Boninger ML, Fullerton B, McCann T, Collinger JL, Impink BG, Dyson-Hudson TA. Shoulder ultrasound abnormalities, physical examination findings, and pain in manual wheelchair users with spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2008;89: 2086–2093.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curtis KA, Drysdale GA, Lanza RD, Kolber M, Vitolo RS, West R. Shoulder pain in wheelchair users with tetra plegia and paraplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1999;80:453–457.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davidoff G, Werner R, Waring W. Compressive mononeuropathies of the upper extremity in chronic paraplegia. Paraplegia 1991;29:17–24.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dyson-Hudson TA, Kirshblum SC. Shoulder pain in chronic spinal cord injury, part I: epidemiology, etiology, and pathomechanics. J Spinal Cord Med 2004; 27:4–17.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fullerton HD, Borckardt JJ, Alfano AP. Shoulder pain: a comparison of wheelchair athletes and nonathletic wheelchair users. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003;35:1958–1961.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gellman H, Chandler DR, Petrasek J, Sie I, Adkins R, Waters RL. Carpal tunnel syndrome in paraplegic patients. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1988;70:517–519.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lal S. Premature degenerative shoulder changes in spinal cord injury patients. Spinal Cord 1998;36:186–189.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCasland LD, Budiman-Mak E, Weaver FM, Adams E, Miskevics S. Shoulder pain in the traumatically injured spinal cord patient: evaluation of risk factors and function. J Clin Rheumatol 2006;12:179–186.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pentland WE, Twomey LT. Upper limb function in persons with long term paraplegia and implications for independence: part I. Paraplegia 1994;32:211–218.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Salisbury SK, Nitz J, Souvlis T. Shoulder pain following tetraplegia: a follow-up study 2–4 years after injury. Spinal Cord 2006;44:723–728.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samuelsson KA, Tropp H, Gerdle B. Shoulder pain and its consequences in paraplegic spinal cord-injured, wheelchair users. Spinal Cord 2004;42:41–46.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tun CG, Upton J. The paraplegic hand: electrodiagnostic studies and clinical findings. J Hand Surg [Am] 1988;13:716–719.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Drongelen S, de Groot S, Veeger HE, Angenot EL, Dallmeijer AJ, Post MW, van der Woude LH. Upper extremity musculoskeletal pain during and after rehabilitation in wheelchair-using persons with a spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 2006;44:152–159.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang J, Boninger ML, Leath JD, Fitzgerald SG, Dyson-Hudson TA, Chang MW. Carpal tunnel syndrome in manual wheelchair users with spinal cord injury: a cross-sectional multicenter study. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2009;88:1007–1016.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niesing R, Eijskoot F, Kranse R, den Ouden AH, Storm J, Veeger HE, van der Woude LH, Snijders CJ. Computer-controlled wheelchair ergometer. Med Biol Eng Comput 1990;28:329–338.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robertson RN, Boninger ML, Cooper RA, Shimada SD. Pushrim forces and joint kinetics during wheelchair propulsion. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1996;77:856–864.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodgers MM, Tummarakota S, Lieh J. Three-dimensional dynamic analysis of wheelchair propulsion. J Appl Biomech 1998;14:80–92.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruggles DL, Cahalan T, An KN. Biomechanics of wheelchair propulsion by able-bodied subjects. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1994;75:540–544.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veeger HE, van der Woude LHV, Rozendal RH. Load on the upper extremity in manual wheelchair propulsion. J Electromyo Kines 1991;1:270–280.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asato KT, Cooper RA, Robertson RN, Ster JF. SMARTWheels: development and testing of a system for measuring manual wheelchair propulsion dynamics. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 1993;40:1320–1324.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper RA. SMARTWheel: from concept to clinical practice. Prosthet Orthot Int 2009;33:198–209.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guo LY, Zhao KD, Su FC, An KN. Moment generation in wheelchair propulsion. Proc Inst Mech Eng [H] 2003;217:405–413.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sabick MB, Kotajarvi BR, An KN. A new method to quantify demand on the upper extremity during manual wheelchair propulsion. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2004;85:1151–1159.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Drongelen S, van der Woude LH, Janssen TW, Angenot EL, Chadwick EK, Veeger DH. Mechanical load on the upper extremity during wheelchair activities. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2005;86:1214–1220.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu HW, Berglund LJ, Su FC, Yu B, Westreich A, Kim KJ, An KN. An instrumented wheel for kinetic analysis of wheelchair propulsion. J Biomech Eng 1998;120:533–535.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dubowsky SR, Rasmussen J, Sisto SA, Langrana NA. Validation of a musculoskeletal model of wheelchair propulsion and its application to minimizing shoulder joint forces. J Biomech 2008;41:2981–2988.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Drongelen S, van der Woude LH, Janssen TW, Angenot EL, Chadwick EK, Veeger DH. Glenohumeral contact forces and muscle forces evaluated in wheelchair-related activities of daily living in able-bodied subjects versus subjects with paraplegia and tetraplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2005;86:1434–1440.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veeger HE, Rozendaal LA, van der Helm FC. Load on the shoulder in low intensity wheelchair propulsion. Clin Biomech 2002;17:211–218.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mercer JL, Boninger M, Koontz A, Ren D, Dyson-Hudson T, Cooper R. Shoulder joint kinetics and pathology in manual wheelchair users. Clin Biomech 2006;21:781–789.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodgers MM, Gayle GW, Figoni SF, Kobayashi M, Lieh J, Glaser RM. Biomechanics of wheelchair propulsion during fatigue. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1994;75:85–93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cerquiglini S, Figura F, Marchetti M, Ricci B. Biomechanics of wheel chair propulsion. In: Cerquiglini S, Venerando A, Wartenweiler J, editors. Biomechanics III, Basel: Karger AG; 1973. pp 410–419.
   Google Scholar
• Harburn KL, Spaulding SJ. Muscle activity in the spinal cord-injured during wheelchair ambulation. Am J Occup Ther 1986;40:629–636.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masse LC, Lamontagne M, O'Riain MD. Biomechanical analysis of wheelchair propulsion for various seating positions. J Rehabil Res Dev 1992;29:12–28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang YS, Koontz AM, Triolo RJ, Mercer JL, Boninger ML. Surface electromyography activity of trunk muscles during wheelchair propulsion. Clin Biomech 2006;21:1032–1041.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang YS, Koontz AM, Triolo RJ, Cooper RA, Boninger ML. Biomechanical analysis of functional electrical stimulation on trunk musculature during wheelchair propulsion. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2009;23:717–725.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roehrig S, Like G. Factors affecting shoulder pain in adolescents and young adults with spina bifida. Pediatr Phys Ther 2008;20:224–232.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lehmann JF, Warren CG, Halar E, Stonebridge JB, DeLateur BJ. Wheelchair propulsion in the quadriplegic patient. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1974;55:183–186.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanford JA, Story MF, Jones ML. An analysis of the effects of ramp slope on people with mobility impairments. Assist Technol 1997;9:22–33.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sweeney GM, Harrison RA, Clarke AK. Portable ramps for wheelchair users – an appraisal. Int Disabil Stud 1989;11:68– 70.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Koontz AM, Cooper RA, Boninger ML, Yang Y, Impink BG, van der Woude LH. A kinetic analysis of manual wheelchair propulsion during start-up on select indoor and outdoor surfaces. J Rehabil Res Dev 2005;42: 447–458.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morrow MM, Hurd WJ, Kaufman KR, An KN. Shoulder demands in manual wheelchair users across a spectrum of activities. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 2010;20:61–67.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Woude LH, Hendrich KM, Veeger HE, van Ingen Schenau GJ, Rozendal RH, de Groot G, Hollander AP. Manual wheelchair propulsion: effects of power output on physiology and technique. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1988;20:70–78.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Algood SD, Cooper RA, Fitzgerald SG, Cooper R, Boninger ML. Impact of a pushrim-activated power-assisted wheelchair on the metabolic demands, stroke frequency, and range of motion among subjects with tetraplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2004;85:1865–1871.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Algood SD, Cooper RA, Fitzgerald SG, Cooper R, Boninger ML. Effect of a pushrim-activated power-assist wheelchair on the functional capabilities of persons with tetraplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2005;86:380–386.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arva J, Fitzgerald SG, Cooper RA, Boninger ML. Mechanical efficiency and user power requirement with a pushrim activated power assisted wheelchair. Med Eng Phys 2001;23:699–705.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Best KL, Kirby RL, Smith C, MacLeod DA. Comparison between performance with a pushrim-activated power-assisted wheelchair and a manual wheelchair on the Wheelchair Skills Test. Disabil Rehabil 2006;28:213–220.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ding D, Souza A, Cooper RA, Fitzgerald SG, Cooper R, Kelleher A, Boninger ML. A preliminary study on the impact of pushrim-activated power-assist wheelchairs among individuals with tetraplegia. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2008;87:821–829.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fitzgerald SG, Arva J, Cooper RA, Dvorznak MJ, Spaeth DM, Boninger ML. A pilot study on community usage of a pushrim-activated, power-assisted wheelchair. Assist Technol 2003;15:113–119.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giacobbi PR, Jr., Levy CE, Dietrich FD, Winkler SH, Tillman MD, Chow JW. Wheelchair users' perceptions of and experiences with power assist wheels. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2010;89:225–235.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karmarkar A, Cooper RA, Liu HY, Connor S, Puhlman J. Evaluation of pushrim-activated power-assisted wheelchairs using ANSI/RESNA standards. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2008;89:1191–1198.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Love JA, Benson J. Community use of a pushrim activated power-assisted wheelchair by an individual with facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy. Physiother Theory Pract 2006;22:207–218.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nash MS, Koppens D, van HM, Sherman AL, Lippiatt JP, Lewis JE. Power-assisted wheels ease energy costs and perceptual responses to wheelchair propulsion in persons with shoulder pain and spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2008;89:2080–2085.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chow JW, Mindock LA. Discus throwing performances and medical classification of wheelchair athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999;31:1272–1279.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chow JW, Chae WS, Crawford MJ. Kinematic analysis of shot-putting performed by wheelchair athletes of different medical classes. J Sports Sci 2000;18:321–330.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chow JW, Kuenster AF, Lim Y-T. Kinematic analysis of the javelin throw performed by wheelchair athletes of different functional classes. J Sports Sci Med 2003;2:36–46.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chow JW, Chae WS. Kinematic analysis of the 100-m wheelchair race. J Biomech 2007;40:2564–2568.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper RA. An exploratory study of racing wheelchair propulsion dynamics. Adapt Phys Activ Q 1990;7:74–85.
   Google Scholar
• Cooper RA. Wheelchair racing sports science: a review. J Rehabil Res Dev 1990;27:295–312.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cooper RA. A systems approach to the modeling of racing wheelchair propulsion. J Rehabil Res Dev 1990;27:151–162.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gehlsen GM, Davis RW, Bahamonde R. Intermittent velocity and wheelchair racing performance characteristics. Adapt Phys Activ Q 1990;7:219–230.
   Google Scholar
• Goosey-Tolfrey VL, Fowler NE, Campbell IG, Iwnicki SD. A kinetic analysis of trained wheelchair racers during two speeds of propulsion. Med Eng Phys 2001;23:259–266.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goosey VL, Fowler NE, Campbell IG. A kinematic analysis of wheelchair propulsion techniques in senior male, senior female, and junior male athletes. Adapt Phys Activ Q 1997;14:156–165.
   Google Scholar
• Goosey VL, Campbell IG. Symmetry of the elbow kinematics during racing wheelchair propulsion. Ergonomics 1998;41:1810–1820.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goosey VL, Campbell IG, Fowler NE. Effect of push frequency on the economy of wheelchair racers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000;32:174–181.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moss AD, Fowler NE, Goosey-Tolfrey VL. The intra-push velocity profile of the over-ground racing wheelchair sprint start. J Biomech 2005;38:15–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'connor TJ, Robertson RN, Cooper RA. Three-dimensional kinematic analysis and physiologic assessment of racing wheelchair propulsion. Adapt Phys Activ Q 1998;15:1–14.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ridgway M, Pope C, Wilkerson J. A kinematic analysis of 800-meter wheelchair-racing technique. Adapt Phys Activ Q 1988;5:96–107.
   Google Scholar
• van der Woude LHV, Veeger HEJ, Rozendal RH, van Ingen Schenau GJ, Rooth F, van Nierop P. Wheelchair racing: effects of rim diameter and speed on physiology and technique. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1988;20:492–500.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang YT, Vrongistinos KD, Xu D. The relationship between consistency of propulsive cycles and maximum angular velocity during wheelchair racing. J Appl Biomech 2008;24:280–287.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shephard RJ. Sports medicine and the wheelchair athlete. Sports Med 1988;4:228–247.
   Google Scholar
• van der Woude LH, Groot S. Wheelchair propulsion: a straining form of ambulation. Indian J Med Res 2005;121:719–722.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aljure J, Eltorai I, Bradley WE, Lin JE, Johnson B. Carpal tunnel syndrome in paraplegic patients. Paraplegia 1985;23:182–186.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ballinger DA, Rintala DH, Hart KA. The relation of shoulder pain and range-of-motion problems to functional limitations, disability, and perceived health of men with spinal cord injury: a multifaceted longitudinal study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2000;81:1575–1581.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bayley JC, Cochran TP, Sledge CB. The weight-bearing shoulder. The impingement syndrome in paraplegics. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1987;69:676–678.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boninger ML, Towers JD, Cooper RA, Dicianno BE, Munin MC. Shoulder imaging abnormalities in individuals with paraplegia. J Rehabil Res Dev 2001;38:401–408.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalyan M, Cardenas DD, Gerard B. Upper extremity pain after spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 1999;37:191–195.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finley MA, Rodgers MM. Prevalence and identification of shoulder pathology in athletic and nonathletic wheelchair users with shoulder pain: a pilot study. J Rehabil Res Dev 2004;41:395–402.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nichols PJ, Norman PA, Ennis JR. Wheelchair user's shoulder? Shoulder pain in patients with spinal cord lesions. Scand J Rehabil Med 1979;11:29–32.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sie IH, Waters RL, Adkins RH, Gellman H. Upper extremity pain in the postrehabilitation spinal cord injured patient. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1992;73:44–48.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silfverskiold J, Waters RL. Shoulder pain and functional disability in spinal cord injury patients. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1991;272:141–145.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schroer W, Lacey S, Frost FS, Keith MW. Carpal instability in the weight-bearing upper extremity. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1996;78:1838–1843.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Boninger ML, Cooper RA, Fitzgerald SG, Lin J, Cooper R, Dicianno B, Liu B. Investigating neck pain in wheelchair users. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2003;82:197–202.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burnham RS, Steadward RD. Upper extremity peripheral nerve entrapments among wheelchair athletes: prevalence, location, and risk factors. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1994;75:519–524.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curtis KA, Dillon DA. Survey of wheelchair athletic injuries: common patterns and prevention. In: Broekhoff J, Ellis MJ, Tripps DG, editors. Sport and disabled athletes. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers; 1986. pp 211–216.
   Google Scholar
• Curtis KA, Black K. Shoulder pain in female wheelchair basketball players. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1999;29:225–231.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boninger ML, Impink BG, Cooper RA, Koontz AM. Relation between median and ulnar nerve function and wrist kinematics during wheelchair propulsion. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2004;85:1141–1145.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boninger ML, Koontz AM, Sisto SA, Dyson-Hudson TA, Chang M, Price R, Cooper RA. Pushrim biomechanics and injury prevention in spinal cord injury: recommendations based on CULP-SCI investigations. J Rehabil Res Dev 2005;42:9–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wei SH, Huang S, Jiang CJ, Chiu JC. Wrist kinematic characterization of wheelchair propulsion in various seating positions: implication to wrist pain. Clin Biomech 2003;18:S46–S52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miyahara K, Wang DH, Mori K, Takahashi K, Miyatake N, Wang BL, Takigawa T, Takaki J, Ogino K. Effect of sports activity on bone mineral density in wheelchair athletes. J Bone Miner Metab 2008;26:101–106.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergland A, Narum I. Quality of life: diversity in content and meaning. Crit Rev Phys Rehabil Med 2007;19:115–139.
   Google Scholar
• Jain NB, Sullivan M, Kazis LE, Tun CG, Garshick E. Factors associated with health-related quality of life in chronic spinal cord injury. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2007;86:387–396.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patrick DL, Kinne S, Engelberg RA, Pearlman RA. Functional status and perceived quality of life in adults with and without chronic conditions. J Clin Epidemiol 2000;53:779–785.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furlong M, Connor JP. The measurement of disability-related stress in wheelchair users. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2007;88:1260–1267.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barker DJ, Reid D, Cott C. Acceptance and meanings of wheelchair use in senior stroke survivors. Am J Occup Ther 2004;58:221–230.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaves ES, Boninger ML, Cooper R, Fitzgerald SG, Gray DB, Cooper RA. Assessing the influence of wheelchair technology on perception of participation in spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2004;85:1854–1858.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoenig H, Landerman LR, Shipp KM, George L. Activity restriction among wheelchair users. J Am Geriatr Soc 2003;51:1244–1251.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gutierrez DD, Thompson L, Kemp B, Mulroy SJ. The relationship of shoulder pain intensity to quality of life, physical activity, and community participation in persons with paraplegia. J Spinal Cord Med 2007;30:251–255.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barker RN, Kendall MD, Amsters DI, Pershouse KJ, Haines TP, Kuipers P. The relationship between quality of life and disability across the lifespan for people with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 2009;47:149–155.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Putzke JD, Richards JS, Hicken BL, DeVivo MJ. Interference due to pain following spinal cord injury: important predictors and impact on quality of life. Pain 2002;100:231–242.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wollaars MM, Post MW, van Asbeck FW, Brand N. Spinal cord injury pain: the influence of psychologic factors and impact on quality of life. Clin J Pain 2007;23:383–391.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh R, Dhankar SS, Rohilla R. Quality of life of people with spinal cord injury in Northern India. Int J Rehabil Res 2008;31:247–251.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gurcay E, Bal A, Eksioglu E, Cakci A. Quality of life in patients with spinal cord injury. Int J Rehabil Res 2010, in press.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Giacobbi PR, Jr., Stancil M, Hardin B, Bryant L. Physical activity and quality of life experienced by highly active individuals with physical disabilities.Adapt Phys Activ Q 2008;25:189–207.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper RA, Quatrano LA, Axelson PW, Harlan W, Stineman M, Franklin B, Krause JS, Bach J, Chambers H, Chao EY, Alexander M, Painter P. Research on physical activity and health among people with disabilities: a consensus statement. J Rehabil Res Dev 1999;36:142–154.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sporner ML, Fitzgerald SG, Dicianno BE, Collins D, Teodorski E, Pasquina PF, Cooper RA. Psychosocial impact of participation in the National Veterans Wheelchair Games and Winter Sports Clinic. Disabil Rehabil 2009;31:410–418.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levy CE, Buman MP, Chow JW, Tillman MD, Fournier KA, Giacobbi P, Jr. Use of power assist wheels results in increased distance traveled compared with conventional manual wheeling. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2010;89:625–634.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giesbrecht EM, Ripat JD, Quanbury AO, Cooper JE. Participation in community-based activities of daily living: comparison of a pushrim-activated, power-assisted wheelchair and a power wheelchair. Disabil Rehabil Assist Technol 2009;4:198–207.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Boninger ML, Dicianno BE, Cooper RA, Towers JD, Koontz AM, Souza AL. Shoulder magnetic resonance imaging abnormalities, wheelchair propulsion, and gender. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2003;84:1615–1620.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cowan RE, Nash MS, Collinger JL, Koontz AM, Boninger ML. Impact of surface type, wheelchair weight, and axle position on wheelchair propulsion by novice older adults. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2009;90:1076–1083.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McVeigh SA, Hitzig SL, Craven BC. Influence of sport participation on community integration and quality of life: a comparison between sport participants and non-sport participants with spinal cord injury. J Spinal Cord Med 2009;32:115–124.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anneken V, Hanssen-Doose A, Hirschfeld S, Scheuer T, Thietje R. Influence of physical exercise on quality of life in individuals with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 2010;48:393–399.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ditor DS, Latimer AE, Ginis KA, Arbour KP, McCartney N, Hicks AL. Maintenance of exercise participation in individuals with spinal cord injury: effects on quality of life, stress and pain. Spinal Cord 2003;41:446–450.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cowan RE, Boninger ML, Sawatzky BJ, Mazoyer BD, Cooper RA. Preliminary outcomes of the SmartWheel Users' Group database: a proposed framework for clinicians to objectively evaluate manual wheelchair propulsion. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2008;89:260–268.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar