A reappraisal on amyloid cascade hypothesis: the role of chronic infection in Alzheimer’s disease

Abstract

Alzheimer disease (AD) is a progressive neurological disorder that accounted for the most common cause of dementia in the elderly population. Lately, ‘infection hypothesis’ has been proposed where the infection of microbes can lead to the pathogenesis of AD. Among different types of microbes, human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1), herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1), Chlamydia pneumonia, Spirochetes and Candida albicans are frequently detected in the brain of AD patients. Amyloid-beta protein has demonstrated to exhibit antimicrobial properties upon encountering these pathogens. It can bind to microglial cells and astrocytes to activate immune response and neuroinflammation. Nevertheless, HIV-1 and HSV-1 can develop into latency whereas Chlamydia pneumonia, Spirochetes and Candida albicans can cause chronic infections. At this stage, the DNA of microbes remains undetectable yet active. This can act as the prolonged pathogenic stimulus that over-triggers the expression of Aβ-related genes, which subsequently lead to overproduction and deposition of Aβ plaque. This review will highlight the pathogenesis of each of the stated microbial infection, their association in AD pathogenesis as well as the effect of chronic infection in AD progression. Potential therapies for AD by modulating the microbiome have also been suggested. This review will aid in understanding the infectious manifestations of AD.

Keywords:

• Alzheimer’s disease
• microbial infection
• infection hypothesis
• chronic infection

Acknowledgement

Authors are thankful to Taylor’s University Flagship Research Grant [TUFR/2017/002/04] for their support and facilities provided through Taylor’s internal grant. This work was supported by Taylor’s University through its TAYLOR’S RESEARCH SCHOLARSHIP Programme.

Authors’ contribution statement

ZP (Zhi Xin Phuna) contributed the ideas and writing, while PM (Priya Madhavan) supervised the whole review.

Disclosure statement

All the authors ensure that there is no conflict of interest regarding authorship or any other matters pertaining to this manuscript.

Funding

This work is funded by Taylor’s University under Taylor’s University Flagship Research Grant [TUFR/2017/002/04].