Teachers’ emotional consequences of COVID-19 pandemic in the context of their relationship with the school principal

ABSTRACT

This study aims to investigate teachers’ perspectives regarding the emotional consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic and their coping strategies, in the context of their relationship with the principal. The study posed three questions: (1) What emotions and feelings are described by teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic? (2) How do the teachers perceive their relationship with the principal in the context of their emotional experience? (3) What strategies did the teachers employ in order to handle their distress during the COVID-19 pandemic? Based on 14 semi-structured interviews with Israeli teachers, three key themes were found. (1) Teachers who experienced burnout and a lack of motivation. (2) Teachers who faced stress and work overload due to technical and pedagogical challenges. (3) Teachers who described experiencing professional growth and emphasised the significance of a supportive relationship with the principal. The findings provide valuable insights and suggest practical implications for supporting teachers during challenging times.

KEYWORDS:

• COVID-19 pandemic
• school principal
• teachers’ emotions
• teachers’ experience
• school leadership

Introduction

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to tremendous health, psychological and social impacts on peoples’ lives. Employees from most countries around the world have had to deal with various emotional, psychological and functional implications of the pandemic including stress, anxiety, loneliness and depression (Kloutsiniotis et al. 2022). This has been specifically relevant to teachers and educational leaders, since the closure of educational systems around the world led to the almost complete shut-down of schools, and by the end of April 2020, 1.725 billion pupils from 190 countries were staying at home. The intensity and duration of school closures varied across countries and regions, and the emotional and psychological implication varied accordingly (UNESCO 2021).

Extensive research has been conducted on the challenges faced by employees during the COVID-19 pandemic, including healthcare workers (Finstad et al. 2021), the tourism industry (Kloutsiniotis et al. 2022), and the field of education (Harris 2020; Kafa 2023). In the context of education, previous studies have highlighted the pedagogical challenges encountered by teachers during the COVID-19 epidemic (Masry-Herzalah and Dor-Haim 2022), as well as their experiences of stress (Pressley, Ha, and Learn 2021; Robinson et al. 2022) and anxiety (Ozamiz-Etxebarria et al. 2021). However, one significant aspect that has been overlooked is the emotional experiences of teachers in relation to their interactions with school administration during the pandemic. While previous studies have examined the role of school principals during this time (e.g. Harris 2020; Kafa 2023), the focus has primarily been on the principal's leadership rather than the reciprocal teacher-principal relationship.

This issue holds significant importance, as a positive relationship between school principals and teaching staff is associated with a constructive school climate, increased commitment to work, and enhanced team cohesion around school goals (Price 2012). Principal leadership has been found to directly impact teachers’ motivation, enthusiasm, and work performance (Noor, Wahyu, and Suhaimi 2019). Furthermore, the professional support provided by principals has been shown to strengthen teachers’ performance in the classroom and improve their teaching abilities (Varrati, Lavine, and Turner 2009), while emotional support from principals contributes to teachers’ personal growth and reduces teacher attrition (Hughes, Matt, and O'Reilly 2015). The significance of this topic is further highlighted by the influential role of school principals in supporting teachers’ adaptation to global crises in their work (Kafa 2023; Matthews et al. 2022). Therefore, gaining a comprehensive understanding of how teachers perceive the emotional consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic in the context of their relationship with the principal can assist school management in providing tailored support to their staff.

Teaching is considered to be one of the most stressful professions due to teachers’ numerous tasks, the rigid schedule and the contradictory expectations from the schools’ stakeholders (MacIntyre et al. 2019). Following the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, teachers had to deal with new stressors, such as the sudden shift to remote teaching without preparation and confronting changing pedagogical requirements. At the same time, they had to confront personal stressors, such as their own health concerns, social distancing and the shortage of daily necessities (Collie 2021). These personal and professional difficulties may have long-term consequences for teachers since acute and chronic stress related to work, has been found to have a long-term emotional effect such as burnout, fatigue and an experience of alienation from work (Guthier, Dormann, and Voelkle 2020).

This study aims to investigate teachers’ perspectives regarding the emotional consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic and their coping strategies, in the context of their relationship with the school principal. The study posed three questions: (1) What emotions and feelings are described by teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic? (2) How do the teachers perceive their relationship with the school principal in the context of their emotional experience during the COVID-19 pandemic? (3) What strategies did the teachers employ in order to handle their distress during the COVID-19 pandemic?

Literature review

Teaching is recognised as a demanding profession associated with high levels of workload and burnout, encompassing multiple tasks, a structured timetable, and conflicting expectations placed upon teachers (MacIntyre et al. 2019). Stress is an emotional response that arises when individuals face demands that surpass their available resources (Lazarus and Folkman 1987). Prolonged work-related stress, excessive demands, and heavy workloads can contribute to burnout, characterised by diminished physical and mental energy, as well as depleted resources and vitality (Sánchez-Pujalte et al. 2021). Teacher burnout manifests across three dimensions: emotional exhaustion, reduced professional efficacy, and depersonalisation. Consequently, teachers experiencing burnout may exhibit apathy toward their professional responsibilities, suffer from physical and emotional fatigue, and struggle with feelings of inadequacy, failure, and diminished self-worth (Smeds et al. 2020).

The impact of stress and burnout on an individual's psychological well-being is significantly influenced by their coping strategies. Psychological coping involves conscious efforts to address personal and social challenges while attempting to manage, reduce, or endure the experience of stress and conflicts (Zeidner and Saklofske 1996). Lazarus and Folkman (1987) differentiate between problem-focused coping, which involves addressing the underlying causes of stress in the environment, and emotion-focused coping, which focuses on regulating the accompanying unpleasant emotions associated with distress. The ability to cope effectively with work-related stress is closely linked to an individual's resilience, which refers to their capacity to navigate chronic or significant workplace adversities such as job loss, heavy workloads, and criticism (Martin and Marsh 2008).

Several studies have investigated the coping strategies employed by teachers to mitigate stress and burnout (Herman et al. 2021; MacIntyre et al. 2022; Shoulders, Estepp, and Johnson 2011). The findings indicate that teachers who have access to coping resources are less likely to experience burnout (Herman, Hickmon-Rosa, and Reinke 2018), and those who demonstrate effective resilience in the face of adversity tend to experience lower levels of stress and emotional exhaustion (Chan et al. 2021). Additionally, the development of coping skills has been shown to contribute to reducing the negative impact of stress on job satisfaction (Woods et al. 2023), and a sense of hope among language teachers has been found to be significantly correlated with successful stress coping (MacIntyre et al. 2022). Several strategies employed by teachers to mitigate burnout and alleviate stress have been identified, including adapting to professional challenges, seeking support from colleagues (Pyhältö et al. 2021), taking regular breaks from work, receiving support from family, and adjusting personal ambitions (Bjørndal, Antonsen, and Jakhelln 2022). When it comes to interventions for managing stress and burnout among teachers, Mindfulness-Based Interventions and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy have demonstrated effectiveness (Agyapong et al. 2023), and comprehensive professional preparation has proven effective in preventing stress (Klassen and Durksen 2014).

Teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic

In the course of the COVID-19 pandemic, teachers in numerous countries suffered from negative symptoms such as stress, depression and anxiety as well as family and social difficulties such as increased rate of divorce (Ozamiz-Etxebarria et al. 2021). Few studies have highlighted, though, teachers’ sense of heavy workload that characterised their experience during the pandemic (Chan et al. 2021; MacIntyre et al. 2019 ) in which women were found to be more affected than men (Sánchez-Pujalte et al. 2021). These psychological symptoms are explained by the abrupt change in the teachers’ pedagogical work, like the need to swiftly switch to distance teaching without prior preparation (Chan et al. 2021).

The rapid and unexpected spread of the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in teachers facing challenges in transitioning to online teaching without sufficient preparation or training (Masry-Herzalah and Dor-Haim 2022). Additionally, the limited access to computers and internet connection for both teachers and students in many countries further complicated the shift to distance learning (Aboagye, Yawson, and Appiah 2020). As teachers’ technological competence has been linked to their success in online teaching (Masry-Herzalah and Dor-Haim 2022), it is plausible that it also influenced their levels of stress and burnout. Within this context, the teacher-principal relationship may play a significant role in determining the extent of distress experienced by teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic. This is because the relationship impacts school climate (Meyers and Hitt 2017) as well as teachers’ motivation and satisfaction (Olsen and Huang 2019).

Teachers- principals’ relationships

Mutual trust plays a central role in developing positive emotional relationships between principals and teachers during work. A sense of trust may promote a healthy school climate and be valuable for the teachers’ emotional experience and for their performance in the classroom (Price 2012). While a variety of leadership theories focus on the action of leaders on their subordinates, their relationship can be viewed as reciprocal and influencing each other (Anand, Vidyarthi, and Rolnicki 2018). The leader-member exchange theory claims that the strength of trust between a leader and a subordinate differentially affects the quality of their relationship (Brower, Schoorman, and Tan 2000). This theory characterises the quality of relationship between a leader and a member as the degree to which trust, respect and mutual obligation exist within a dyad (Graen and Uhl-Bien 1995). The basis of this theory is based on a mutual relationship, between a leader and a member while referring to the different roles at work and the nature of the interaction between them (Urbach and Fay 2021).

Previous studies show that a sense of trust between the principals and their staff significantly improve teachers’ satisfaction and commitment (Price 2012). Likewise, constructive principal-teacher relationship found to be associated with positive teachers’ attitudes towards their job (Bryk et al. 2010). The significant impact of teacher-principal relationship can also be explained in the context of school leadership. Principals may significantly shape a positive school climate (Mailool et al. 2020), promote supportive environments and encourage teachers’ personal growth (Brown and Wynn 2009). For example, previous studies have found that the more the principal encourages the educational staff to take part in the school's decisions, the stronger the teachers’ satisfaction and productivity (Mayer et al. 2013; Brezicha et al. 2020). Additionally, principals’ support found to have a significant effect on teachers’ emotions, to predict teachers’ job satisfaction (Olsen and Huang 2019) and to encourage a culture of professional development within the school (Meyers and Hitt 2017).

The relationship between teachers and principals is significantly influenced by the organisational structure of the school. The loosely coupled nature of the school's organisational structure (Weick 1976) allows teachers to have independent and autonomous roles within their classrooms, with limited influence from the principal (Johnson et al. 2014). Despite the principals’ significant responsibility for the school's functioning, they often have limited authority over teachers’ conduct. This power asymmetry places principals in a vulnerable position in their relationship with teachers (Bryk et al. 2010). Consequently, the personal relationship between principals and the teaching staff becomes a central and crucial element in shaping the overall conduct and functioning of the school.

Methodology

This study is based on qualitative methodology, relying on an interpretive concept that emphasises the meaning that human beings attribute to reality as they experience it (Denzin and Lincoln 2018). The rationale for employing qualitative research methods in this study stems from the recognition of the need to delve into the complex emotional dimensions associated with teachers’ experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. By using a qualitative approach, we can capture the nuanced meanings that teachers attribute to their emotions and uncover the contextual subtleties inherent in their experiences. Furthermore, this methodology allows for a comprehensive examination of the unique challenges faced by teachers and the impact of the teacher-principal relationship on their emotional well-being. Additionally, qualitative methods align with the aim to gather extensive data on participants’ perspectives and enable clarifying any ambiguities or uncertainties that may arise during the research process (Taylor, Bogdan, and DeVault 2015).

The context of the study

In line with educational systems worldwide, the COVID-19 pandemic impacted the Israeli education system, resulting in school closures and the implementation of emergency online teaching. In Israel, educational institutions were suspended from March 2020, and since then, they have experienced repeated openings and closures in response to the spread of the coronavirus (Frei-Landau and Avidov-Ungar 2022; Masry-Herzalah and Dor-Haim 2022). The Israeli education system's response to the COVID-19 crisis has been characterised by unclear and haphazard actions, with continuously changing and contradictory instructions (Dahan et al. 2020). Distance learning in Israel was conducted in an emergency format without proper prior preparation, relying on video applications like Zoom rather than utilising specialised teaching tools. This approach placed a significant burden on parents, particularly for elementary school students (Masry-Herzalah and Dor-Haim 2022). Notably, the Israeli education system differs from many OECD countries in terms of larger family sizes and crowded school classrooms, making it challenging to maintain social distancing measures (Birenbaum-Carmeli 2021).

Participant and sample selection

The research literature shows that a higher sensitivity to distress as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic may characterise women due to work-home conflict (Sánchez-Pujalte et al. 2021) as well as older people facing a technological gap (Song and Chen 2019). Hence, the current study focused on female teachers who were relatively experienced in the position. The study included 14 female teachers. The sample was comprised by teachers who worked in elementary schools (n = 9), middle schools (n = 4) and high schools (n = 1). The teachers’ age range was between 35 and 58 (mean – 46.2) and their teaching experience ranged between 7 and 29 years (mean – 18.4). Most of the teachers were married (n = 11) and the remainder were either divorced (n = 2) or single (n = 1). The teachers in this study were selected using criterion sampling (Patton 2002). The participants were identified by contacting school psychologists and school principals who were asked to recommend teachers according to three criteria: (a) they worked as teachers in public schools during the COVID-19 pandemic, (b) were over the age of 35 and with more than 7 years of experience in teaching, and (c) were female teachers who are willing to share their experience at work.

Procedure and data analysis

Semi-structured, face-to-face interviews were conducted to learn about the teachers’ broader perspective regarding the consequences of their emotional and functional experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic (see Appendix for the interview transcript). The interviews in the current study were conducted by the author from 2021 to 2022. Data were collected until saturation was reached, when no new patterns or themes emerged from the data (Creswell and Poth 2017).

Data analysis was performed in four steps: (1) organising the data, (2) generating categories, themes and patterns, (3) testing emergent hypotheses, and (4) searching for alternative explanations (Marshall and Rossman 2016). This analysis aimed to identify central themes in the data by searching for recurrent experiences, feelings and attitudes across participants. The initial step involved identifying recurring phrases and establishing core categories to capture the essence of the data. The focus then shifted to exploring the connections between these categories to develop a comprehensive theoretical framework that encompassed the findings. In order to contextualise the identified theoretical categories, they were compared with concepts derived from existing research literature.

This process involved aligning the observed patterns and themes with established theoretical constructs. To ensure the reliability and validity of the analysis, a thorough review of the raw data was conducted, and alternative explanations were considered to validate the identified categories (Yin 2014). To increase trustworthiness and reliability, the main analysis was accompanied by structured analysis. The coding was guided by the principles of ‘comparative analysis,’ such that all coded elements were analysed using visualising tools, for example tables and diagrams (Strauss 1998). This systematic approach helped ensure consistency in the interpretation of the data and allowed for a comprehensive analysis of the findings.

Findings

The findings reveal three key themes that characterise teachers’ experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic (see Table 1 for further information). One theme involves teachers who experienced burnout and a lack of motivation. Interestingly, these teachers also expressed difficulties in their relationship with the school principal and coped with their negative experiences by lowering their expectations. The second theme involves teachers who felt stressed and overwhelmed. While most of them did not mention specific issues with school administration, they emphasised facing technical and pedagogical challenges. To cope with their negative feelings, they actively sought solutions to stress-inducing problems and sought social support. The third theme revolves around teachers who reported professional growth in various aspects, such as advancements in technological capabilities, increased time for self-reflection, and improved relationships with students. These teachers highlighted the presence of a supportive relationship with school administration. It should be noted that several teachers mentioned both pedagogical and technical difficulties while also acknowledging positive consequences resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic.

Table 1. Central themes and categories identified in the study.

Emotional consequence	Relationship with the principal	Experience	Coping strategy
burnout and lack of motivation	Teachers who mentioned difficulties in relation to the principal	Conflict with the principal Many demands and little support	Lowering expectations
a sense of stress and overload	Teachers who did not mentioned difficulties regarding the conduct of the principal	Technical and pedagogical difficulties	Seeking solutions to problems that cause stress. Seeking social and professional support
A sense of professional grows	Teachers who mentioned a supportive relationship with the principal.	Advances in technological capabilities Time for self-reflection Having good relationships with the pupils

Theme 1: An experience of burnout and lack of motivation.

When asked about their emotional experience during the COVID-19 pandemic, almost half of the teachers reported feelings of burnout and reduced motivation. They expressed a sense of difficulty regarding their relationships with school management and adopted a coping mechanism of lowering their work-related expectations.

Negative functional consequences during COVID-19

Negative functional consequences during the COVID-19 pandemic were reported by six interviewees, which included feelings of burnout, lack of motivation, and a desire to leave the teaching profession. The teachers attributed their burnout to conflicts with school management and the high demands imposed by the Ministry of Education. Two examples illustrate these challenges:

My desire to contribute to the school has almost completely decreased. A month ago, the school principal invited me to talk with her and asked me to take an extra position next year […] I told her no, I'm not ready to take on this position. I'm not ready to take on anything when I know that the school principal and the educational system doesn't believe in me and basically everything is their own interests (middle-school teacher, 22 years at post).

Since Covid-19 started, the parents and the state's negative attitude has made me feel burnout. Today, I don't find myself with the energy I used to have in the past. [Therefore] I asked [the school principal] to make it easier on me. This year I did not take [additional] positions at school (elementary school teacher, 22 years at post).

Handling difficulties related to the school management

These teachers experienced stressful difficulties regarding the school management. The two most prominent stress factors were conflicts with the principal and the feeling that the management sets many demands but provides only little support. This is well demonstrated in the following quotes.

I remember that I had a problem with the internet in the whole house, and then the electricity didn't work in the whole neighborhood either. Then the principal of the school called and scolded me because both the electricity and the internet were down in my house […]. The principal told me that it is not possible for my classes to be canceled one after the other […]. These accusations and lack of trust [on the principal's part] is something that makes me feel distress (middle school, 22 years of experience).

I don't think the school administration had an understanding [of my needs]. Because they had so many demands of me. I didn't come and tell anyone that I was having a hard time. Maybe if I had told them, it would have made it easier for me. But all in all, the demands were the same demands: teach, see the children, call the children, and call the parents (elementary school, 15 years of experience).

Lowering expectations

Schoolteachers who noted stress factors related to the school management mainly described a coping strategy of lowering expectations from work. They explained their coping mechanism as ‘doing what is required of you and that's it’ because they believed that if they would ‘try too hard, it would only hurt you in the end’ (middle school, 11 years of experience). This perception was dominant among teachers who had to handle conflicts and difficulties related to the school management. Therefore, the teachers felt that ‘I didn't want to do for the school, didn't want to give, didn't want to contribute, and didn't want to be at the forefront of a system’ (middle school, 22 years of experience). These teachers shared a sense of having limited abilities and thus decided not to do more than what was formally required of them. A high-school teacher (22 year of experience) demonstrates this well:

At some point I decided to let go. I focused on my studies [for a master's degree] and decided that I would only do what I could. Whoever [of the pupils] joins the online classes would benefit. I felt that I was doing what I could, and I chose not to exert myself beyond my capabilities […] I went through a personal transformation and told myself that I had to accept the situation.

Theme 2: An experience of pressure and overload

Several teachers highlighted that they encountered pedagogical difficulties during the COVID-19 pandemic, leading to feelings of pressure and overload. Interestingly, these teachers did not specifically mention any challenges related to school management. Some of them expressed having a supportive relationship with their school principal, while others did not indicate either a conflictual or supportive dynamic with the principal. To cope with their negative emotions, most teachers sought solutions to alleviate the sources of stress and actively sought social support.

Technical and pedagogical difficulties

More than half of the interviewees explained their sense of distress during the COVID-19 epidemic as related to the technical and pedagogical difficulties of online teaching. They expressed a sense of distress and overload due to the need to teach remotely without prior pedagogical preparation and experienced difficulties operating the technological means. This issue is explained well in the following quotes:

We suddenly had to learn to work with the Zoom software in order to teach online classes and manage the entire system remotely, and I'm not very good with technology. So, at first it was stressful. Every morning anew it would stress me out, because one time the internet didn't work, and another time I couldn't see the monitor well (elementary school, 23 years of experience).

The distance teaching was very intense for me. Working from home was much more difficult than working within the classrooms, because a working day does not end at one in the afternoon but continues until the evening. I had to answer WhatsApp messages and correspond with the children who sent their homework. It becomes 24 h of work in front of the children and the school staff (elementary school, 22 years of experience).

Seeking solutions to problems that cause distress

Most of the teachers who expressed technical and pedagogical difficulties, also indicated that they handled their stress factor using a problem-solving strategy. They were able to conceptualise the difficulties they faced and find a solution for each of them. For example, an elementary schoolteacher (18 years of experience) feared that she would not be able to teach an online class from her home due to various difficulties. She stated:

I found a solution for everything. I found that the internet works by connecting it to my phone. I was able to find a way to keep my daughter busy during the lessons I taught.

Another teacher (middle school, 15 years of experience) work with pupils with insufficient computers and internet connection due to their family's low socio-economic status. She talked about her coping strategy:

I tried to handle the situation by recommending to the principal that we stop using Zoom software and Google Docs. I suggested that we prepare booklets and tasks for the pupils that are suitable to each pupil's level. We began going to each of the pupils’ homes and handing out brochures and assignments to the parents.

Seeking social and professional support

A coping style of seeking help and support from within the school is reflected in two key aspects: support of fellow teachers, and support of the school principal. The following two paragraphs demonstrate this coping style:

I think that one of the most important things to discuss in groups is to say what doesn't work for you, and why it's difficult for you […]. Then the group also empowers each other and provides mutual solutions. The staff meetings also involved peer learning, support, counseling and seeking solutions for personal problems (Elementary school, 14 years of experience).

We had incredible support among our teaching staff. We implemented strategies that helped us perform at our best in front of the students and parents. We formed a cohesive team, consisting of two other dedicated teachers alongside me. Each member had their own strengths. One teacher was always positive and open to our ideas, while another teacher emphasized the importance of structured work. We collaborated closely, supporting one another (Elementary school, 18 years of experience).

Theme3: An experience of professional growth.

Five teachers also highlighted the positive consequences of their experience during the COVID-19 period and emphasised their professional and personal development. Interestingly, these teachers also mentioned a good relationship with the school principal, as stated by two elementary school teachers:

I have a school principal who is strong, supportive, and empathetic to me. She understands that we are human and knows that everyone is doing their best, so it takes the pressure off (18 years of experience).

During the Covid-19 period, there were one on one meetings with the principal. She really cares about me, and I know that I am very dear to her. I think she felt the need to support me and make sure that I was really strengthened and that I would continue to work as a teacher. She also knows that I don't have family with me at home because my daughters are grown, and they don't live with me (25 years of experience).

Positive experience during the COVID-19 period.

A few teachers stated that the need to teach by online computer software helped them and the students to improve their technological abilities. The words of an elementary teacher (15 years of experience) demonstrate this feeling:

I never thought in my life that I would be able to teach using the Zoom software. Online teaching is one of the greatest things that came out of the Covid-19 pandemic. The children are much more able to use computers. It boosted our technological abilities. So, it's a good thing that happened.

Another teacher (elementary-school teacher, 23 years of experience) shared that during the COVID-19 pandemic, she was able to reduce some of the burden in her lives and to manage her selves more calmly:

Something good also came out of all this [the pandemic]. When the corona virus appeared, I reduced my activity load. I felt it's actually nice for me to stop running all the time after things […]. It taught me to maintain a balance between personal life and work. I have taken a lot of stress out of my life, and I live a much more balanced life now. It's really thanks to the corona virus.

Finally, few teachers stated that online teaching helped them establish better personal relationships with the students, as illustrated in the following quotes:

The Covid-19 pandemic helped me to strengthen my relationship with the pupils. It allowed me to see the pupils in context of their most private place – their home […]. Through the Zoom software I could see [the pupils’] private room and their family (elementary school teacher, 18 years of experience).

The corona virus helped me establish a better relationship with the pupils. It was easier for me to write them compliments than to tell it to them face to face (elementary school teacher, 26 years of experience).

Discussion

The current study aims to investigate teachers’ perspectives regarding the emotional consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic and their coping strategies, in the context of their relationship with their school principal. From an analysis of the teachers’ reports, several insights emerged.

First, the present findings expand upon previous studies regarding teachers’ emotional consequences during COVID-19 and highlight the influence of negative teacher-management relationships. Studies conducted prior the COVID-19 pandemic have explored various stressors in teachers’ work, including differences in student learning abilities, conflicts with parents (Verma and Madhavi 2017) and un-adapted requirements from the Ministry of Education (Yaffa-Buskila and Chen-Levi 2021). During COVID-19 pandemic, new stressors emerged for teachers in different countries such as the US (Carver-Thomas, Leung, and Burns 2021), China (Zhou and Yao 2020), United Kingdom (Kim, Oxley, and Asbury 2022) and Australia (Billett, Turner, and Li 2023). These stressors included tension and burnout due to social distancing and the need to adapt to new and unfamiliar teaching situations (Hascher, Beltman, and Mansfield 2021). Simultaneously, there was a shift in the school principal's role concerning communication and decision-making (Schechter et al., 2022, 2).

The current study brings new insights regarding the teachers’ point of view on their relationship with the principals amidst these parallel changes. While previous studies primarily focused on the pedagogical and technical challenges of online teaching (Masry-Herzalah andf Dor-Haim 2022), the teachers in this study attributed their emotional experiences to different factors. Teachers experiencing pressure and overload associated these feelings with pedagogical and technical challenges, while those facing burnout and a lack of motivation connected these outcomes to strained relationships with their school principal. These findings may be explained by the Transactional Model of Stress and Coping (Lazarus and Folkman 1987). According to the model, the intensity of a stressor is related to two aspects: the importance attributed to the desired goal and the severity of the problem associated with the threatening event. It is possible that the severity of the problem that teachers attributed to their relationship with school management was perceived as more severe and persistent than the pedagogical gaps associated with online teaching, which were seen as changeable. Therefore, difficulties with management were explained as causing low motivation and lack of energy at work, while pedagogical difficulties were seen as temporary workload challenges.

Secondly, the current study presents surprising findings regarding the positive consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic reported by teachers. The teachers emphasised professional and personal development, such as advances in technological capabilities, time for self-reflection, and the cultivation of relationships with students. In this sense, the interviewees expand our knowledge about the implications of the COVID-19 pandemic in the field of education. Studies from numerous countries have highlighted the negative symptoms experienced by teachers during the pandemic, including depression, anxiety (Ozamiz-Etxebarria et al. 2021), distress, and work overload (Chan et al. 2021; MacIntyre et al. 2019), while positive outcomes have been given little attention.

A possible explanation for the positive consequences mentioned by the teachers, lies in the positive relationship between themselves and the school principal during the COVID-19 crisis. This finding can be explained by previous studies that have indicated a positive correlation between resilience and social support (Bozdağ and Ergün 2021). A positive teacher-principal relationship may play a central role in managing stress and providing comfort and hope for teachers during times of crisis (Berkovich and Eyal 2018). It is possible that the supportive relationships with the school principal enabled teachers to experience lower levels of stress and recognise the new possibilities that exist in their current situation.

A third insight refers to the strategies that veteran schoolteachers used to cope with stressors. Teachers who emphasised negative relationship with the school management, attempted to cope with the situation by lowering their expectations regarding their work. However, teachers who emphasised stress factors regarding online teaching were characterised by two other coping styles: coping through a deliberate attempt to solve the problem and coping by seeking support from teachers and administrators. These differences in coping strategies may be explained through the cognitive stress theory developed by Lazarus and Folkman (1987). According to this theory, when coping with stress, a person may use a problem-focused coping strategy, which is an attempt to change the person's objective situation. Alternatively, a person may use an emotion-focused coping strategy, which is an attempt to regulate an unpleasant feeling that accompanies the cause of the distress. Attempts to change the sources of distress are more common in situations that are perceived as controllable, whereas attempts to regulate the unpleasant feeling attached to the distress event are more common in situations that are perceived as uncontrollable (Cecen 2008).

Therefore, it may be concluded that threats regarding the relationship with the school management is considered by the teachers as a situation beyond their control. Thus, they did not attempt to change the situation, but rather to regulate the unpleasant feeling that accompanies it by lowering their expectations. However, the threat regarding the online teaching is perceived by the teachers as a controllable situation that can be overcome by finding solutions and receiving help from colleagues. Therefore, teachers’ difficulties regarding their relationship with management were perceived as more difficult and less changeable. In contrast, professional stressors such as the shift to online teaching was perceived by the teachers as less threatening and more changeable.

In conclusion, this study underscores the essential role of the teacher-principal relationship in motivating teachers and influencing their response to adversity during a global crisis. The emotional consequences experienced by teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic were attributed to various factors. While teachers perceived technological and pedagogical challenges as manageable burdens, a strained relationship with the school principal resulted in burnout and reduced work expectations. Conversely, teachers who had a positive relationship with their principal reported a sense of professional growth. Therefore, this study emphasizes the critical importance of principal support in motivating teachers and shaping their response to adversity during a global crisis.

Practical implications and future research

Several practical recommendations are suggested. The research findings indicate the significant role of teacher-principal relationships in school, both as a stressor and as a coping strategy. In order to promote teachers’ resistance to global crises, policy makers as well as supervisors should invest resources in promoting a constructive relationship within the school. It is recommended to provide training for school administrators, both prior to and during their tenure, focusing on establishing supportive relationships with the teaching staff. Specifically, training workshops that address emotional support, empathetic listening, and inclusivity would be of great value.

Furthermore, a significant finding from the study revealed that nearly half of the teachers experienced distress during the COVID-19 pandemic due to strained relationships with school principals. This underscores the importance of equipping school administrators with conflict resolution skills and strategies for managing interpersonal tensions. Conducting workshops within the school that address interpersonal conflicts involving both management and staff is recommended. The involvement of counselors and educational psychologists in fostering positive relationships within the school can also be of great value. Additionally, to address the decline in teachers’ motivation following the COVID-19 crisis, it is advisable for the school staff and administration to facilitate open dialogues about their challenges and express their needs for support and assistance during crises.

Lastly, researching the emotional effects of teachers’ experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic holds great significance in light of the increasing impact of global crises. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has forecasted that climate change may lead to more frequent occurrences of global disasters such as pandemics, fires, and floods (Atwoli et al. 2023). Therefore, studying the emotional aspects that accompanied teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic can contribute to the development of educational policies that support educators in coping emotionally with future disasters and strengthen their psychological resilience.

Despite the study’s great value, it has several limitations. First, the study was conducted in the specific context of the Israeli state-education system, which has unique cultural characteristics such as independent conduct and insufficient obedience to superiors (Hofstede 2011). Thus, future research should examine stress among teachers across other cultures, which embody different social norms. Furthermore, this study examined female teachers alone, since most of the teaching positions in Israeli schools are staffed by women (Blas et al. 2012). Women are more likely to share their feelings of stress openly and honestly and to seek support when they feel threatened (Rotenberg, Gruman, and Ariganello 2002). Further research focusing on male teachers could present a wider picture of the stress factors and coping strategies in the course of global crises.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Peleg Dor-Haim

Peleg Dor-Haim is a faculty member at the school of education at Tel Aviv University. Peleg's main research interests are emotions in the workplace, emotions in teaching and educational leadership.

Appendix

The interview protocol

I want to talk to you about your work as a schoolteacher since the beginning of the COVID-19 epidemic. Try to think about the feelings, emotions and thoughts that accompanied the various periods of work at school during the COVID-19 epidemic.

Questions

1. General questions (position, age, seniority, marital status, previous positions […])

   • Tell me about your role at school: what does it involve?

2. Emotions at work during the COVID-19 epidemic

3. What did you feel as a teacher when working at school, before and during the COVID-19 epidemic?

4. Tell me what it was like for you to work as a teacher during the COVID-19 epidemic?

5. Stress at work during the COVID-19 epidemic

6. Can you elaborate about an incident where you felt stress in the course of your work?

7. Please think about a stressful time you experienced as a schoolteacher during the COVID-19 epidemic.

   • What made you feel stressed? can you give me an example?

   • What did you feel during this experience of stress?

8. What helped you cope with the feeling of stress during the COVID-19 epidemic

9. Emotional and functional consequences of the COVID 19 epidemic

10. Share your perceptions regarding the consequences of the COVID 19 epidemic on you as a teacher.

    • How did the feelings and events you described affected you personally?

    • How did the feelings and events you described affected your work at school?