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Original Articles

The Weight of the Past(s): The Impact of the Bundeswehr’s Use of Historical Experience on Strategy-Making in Afghanistan

 

Abstract

This article seeks to explain the basic dynamics of the development of the German military approach in Afghanistan between 2003 and 2010 by looking at the impact of the Bundeswehr’s established uses of historical experience. First, the German military approach in Afghanistan has slowly evolved from a peacebuilding and mediation mission towards a full-fledged combat deployment. Second, the Bundeswehr’s exclusive focus on the World War II experience has contributed to the emergence of the Balkans experience as a formative experience that shaped initial operational thinking in Afghanistan. Third, because a thorough debate on the historical foundation of counterinsurgency remained absent, the operational shift in 2009 was perceived as a return to ‘classical’ military tasks and thus led to an almost exclusive focus on training for combat.

Acknowledgments

An extended version of this article has been presented at the 2013 International Studies Association Conference. All translations from German into English have been performed by the author. I wish to thank all quoted Bundeswehr officers for their kind agreement to be interviewed as part of my doctoral research project. Furthermore, I would like to thank Dr Bernhard Chiari at the Bundeswehr Zentrum für Militärgeschichte und Sozialwissenschaften for his valuable support during the interview process. Finally, I would like to thank my doctoral supervisor Professor Pascal Vennesson for precious advice and guidance that greatly helped to improve my work.

Notes

The German constitution requires any foreign military deployment to be authorised by a prior parliamentary approval.

Ulf von Krause, Die Afghanistaneinsätze der Bundeswehr – Politischer Entscheidungsprozess mit Eskalationsdynamik (Wiesbaden: VS Verlag 2011). 135.

This limit was gradually increased. In 2012, the Bundeswehr was authorised to deploy 4,900 personnel to Afghanistan.

von Krause, Die Afghanistaneinsätze der Bundeswehr, 140–3.

Quoted in: Ibid., 141.

Marco Seliger, ‘Kunduz – Was läuft falsch?,’ Loyal, Dec. 2009.

Thomas Groeters, Lt Col, ‘German General Staff Officer Education and Current Challenges,’ (Fort Leavenworth: United States Army Command and General Staff College 2006), 35; von Krause, Die Afghanistaneinsätze der Bundeswehr, 141.

The idea, first formulated in a government White Book in 2006, basically refers to the cooperation of separate government ministries under a common agenda but without a single chain of command.

Markus Gauster, ‘Provincial Reconstruction Teams in Afghanistan’, Occasional Paper Series (Garmisch-Partenkirchen: George C. Marshall Center 2008), 24.

Interview with Mr Winfried Nachtwei; by taking that position, he indirectly criticises the policy of his own party, which was part of a coalition government between 1998 and 2005.

Groeters, ‘German General Staff Officer Education and Current Challenges’, 35.

Tim Holzapfel, ‘Es war nicht “Bad Kunduz” – Erfahrungen im ersten Einsatzkontingent Kunduz 2003’, in Sascha Brinkmann and Joachim Hoppe (eds), Generation Einsatz: Fallschirmjäger berichten ihre Erfahrungen aus Afghanistan (Berlin: Miles-Verlag 2010), 73.

Afghanistankonzept der Bundesregierung, quoted in: von Krause, Die Afghanistaneinsätze der Bundeswehr, 146.

Julia Hett, ‘Provincial Reconstruction Teams in Afghanistan’, zif-Analyse (Berlin: Center for International Peace Operations 2005), 17.

The Bonn agreement established Afghanistan’s political order after the defeat of the Taliban government. It included the installation of an interim Afghan government supported by an international stabilisation force, initially restricted to the capital area of Kabul. The deployment of this force was subsequently authorised in Resolution 1386 of the UN Security Council.

Hett, ‘Provincial Reconstruction Teams in Afghanistan’, 21.

Artur Schwitalla, Afghanistan, jetzt weiß ich erst... (Berlin: Miles-Verlag 2010), 161–2.

Interview with Mr Falk Tettweiler, defence expert with the German Institute for International and Security Affairs (SWP).

Winfried Nachtwei, ‘Der ISAF-Einsatz der Bundeswehr – Anmerkungen zu einer überfälligen Bilanzierung: Erweiterte Fassung des Beitrags für das Friedensgutachten 2010’ (2010), 6.

Interview with Maj. Gen. Frank Leidenberger.

Gauster, ‘Provincial Reconstruction Teams in Afghanistan’, 27.

Günter Mohrmann, ‘Auslandseinsätze und zivil-militärische Zusammenarbeit’, in Sabine Jaberg et al. (eds), Auslandseinsätze der Bundeswehr (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot 2009), 105.

Michael Paul, ‘Zivil-militärische Interaktion im Auslandseinsatz’, Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte, 48 (2009), 34.

Marc Lindemann, Unter Beschuss: warum Deutschland in Afghanistan scheitert (Berlin: Econ 2010), 82.

Nachtwei, ‘Der ISAF-Einsatz der Bundeswehr – Anmerkungen zu einer überfälligen Bilanzierung’, 7.

Krause, Die Afghanistaneinsätze der Bundeswehr, 168.

Quoted in: Seliger, ‘Kunduz – Was läuft falsch?.’

Lindemann, Unter Beschuss, 42–3.

Nachtwei, ‘Der ISAF-Einsatz der Bundeswehr’, 7.

Most publications mention this order as real; however, according to Col. Buske, commander of PRT Kunduz in 2008, this was a rumour created by the media (Interview with Col. Rainer Buske).

Interview with Col Rainer Buske.

Timo Noetzel, ‘Germany’, in Thomas Rid and Thomas Keaney (eds), Understanding Counterinsurgency: Doctrine, Operations, and Challenges (London/New York: Routledge 2010), 53.

Lindemann, Unter Beschuss, 55.

Ibid., 51.

Interview with Col. Rainer Buske.

Timo Noetzel, ‘The German Politics of War: Kunduz and the War in Afghanistan,’ International Affairs 87/2 (2011), 405.

Benjamin Schreer, ‘Political Constraints: Germany and Counterinsurgency’, Security Challenges 6/1 (2010), 106.

Noetzel, ‘Germany’, 54.

Interview with Mr Marco Seliger, defence journalist with the magazine Loyal.

Florian Wätzel and Joachim Krause, ‘Das deutsche Engagement in Nordafghanistan’, in Institut für Sicherheitspolitik an der Universität Kiel (ed.), Jahrbuch Terrorismus 2009 (Opladen/Farmington Hills: Verlag Barbara Budrich 2010), 332.

Florian Broschk, ‘Strategische Leitlinien für den Afghanistaneinsatz der Bundeswehr,’ Zeitschrift für Außen- und Sicherheitspolitik 2011, no. 4, 525.

Lindemann, Unter Beschuss.

Alan Cullison and Matthew Karnitschnig, ‘Afghan Insurgency Tests German Troops,’ The Wall Street Journal, 16 Nov. 2009.

Source: Nachtwei, ‘Der ISAF-Einsatz der Bundeswehr’, 8.

Timo Noetzel and Thomas Rid, ‘Germany's Options in Afghanistan’, Survival 51/5 (Oct.–Nov. 2009), 86.

Noetzel, ‘The German Politics of War’, 406.

Stefan Kornelius, ‘Er hat die Menschen als Ziel, nicht die Fahrzeuge’, Süddeutsche Zeitung, 12 Dec. 2009.

Spiegel Online, ‘Bundeswehr setzt schwere Artillerie gegen Aufständische ein,’ Spiegel Online, 11 July 2010, <www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/0,1518,druck-705848,00.html>.

Noetzel, ‘The German Politics of War’, 406.

Kai Rohrschneider, ‘Einsatz als PRT-Kommandeur in Kunduz’, Das schwarze Barett, 43 (2010), 30. With the term pocket card, he refers to the guidelines containing the German rules of engagement which are distributed as a small paper note (‘Taschenkarte’) to every deployed soldier.

Sabine Siebold, ‘Vor dem Abzug kommt der Kampf’, Frankfurter Rundschau, 24 Oct. 2010.

Stephan Löwenstein, ‘Verbunden im Kampf gegen die Taliban’, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 21 April 2010.

Schraven, D., ‘Die erste Schlacht der Bundeswehr in Afghanistan’, Der Westen, 4 Nov. 2012, <www.derwesten.de/politik/die-erste-schlacht-der-bundeswehr-in-afghanistan-id7251189.html>.

Donald Abenheim, Reforging the Iron Cross: The Search for Tradition in the West German Armed Forces (Princeton UP 1988), 12.

Ibid., 48.

Martin Rink, ‘The Service Staff’s Struggle Over Structure – The Bundeswehr’s Internal Debates on Adopting NATO Doctrine 1950–1963’, in James S. Corum (ed.), Rearming Germany (Leiden/Boston: Brill 2011), 222.

Abenheim, Reforging the Iron Cross, 49.

Martin Kutz, ‘Die verspätete Armee: Entstehungsbedingungen, Gefährungen und Defizite der Bundeswehr’, in Frank Nägler (ed.), Die Bundeswehr 1955 bis 2005: Rückblenden, Einsichten, Perspektiven (Munich: Oldenbourg 2007), 67.

Some of these contributions can be found in Othmar Hackl, Generalstab, Generalstabsdienst und Generalstabsausbildung in der Reichswehr und Wehrmacht 1919-1945: Studien deutscher Generale und Generalstabsoffiziere in der Historical Division der US Army in Europa 1946–1961 (Osnabrück: Zeller Verlag 1999).

Kutz, ‘Die verspätete Armee’, 73.

Detlef Bald, ‘Alte Kameraden – Offizierskader der Bundeswehr’, in Ursula Breymayer, Bernd Ulrich and Karin Wieland (eds), Willensmenschen: Über deutsche Offiziere (Frankfurt a.M.: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag 1999), 51.

Detlef Bald, Die Bundeswehr: eine kritische Geschichte, 1955–2005 (Munich: C.H. Beck 2005), 50.

For a thorough discussion of these aspects, see Loretana de Libero, Tradition in Zeiten der Transformation: zum Traditionsverständnis der Bundeswehr im frühen 21. Jahrhundert (Paderborn: Schöningh 2006), 47–86.

Martin Kutz, Reform und Restauration der Offizierausbildung der Bundeswehr: Strukturen und Konzeptionen der Offizierausbildung im Widerstreit militärischer und politischer Interessen (Baden–Baden: Nomos 1982), 25.

Bald, Die Bundeswehr: eine kritische Geschichte, 1955–2005, 62–3.

Quoted in: Detlef Bald, Gerlich Bald-Gerlich, and Eduard Ambros, Tradition und Reform im militärischen Bildungswesen: Von der preussischen Allgemeinen Kriegsschule zur Führungsakademie der Bundeswehr (Baden-Baden: Nomos 1985), 63.

‘Vorläufige Richtlinie der Heeresakademie’ of 31 Jan. 1957, quoted in: Ibid., 250.

Ibid., 66–73.

Kutz, Reform und Restauration der Offizierausbildung der Bundeswehr, 82.

Heeresamt der Bundeswehr, Kriegsnah ausbilden: Hilfen für den Gefechtsdienst aller Truppen (Cologne: Heeresamt 1985), 2.

Fachgruppe Führungslehre Heer, Kriegsgeschichtliche Beispiele (Hamburg: Führungsakademie der Bundeswehr Citation1985), 9.

‘Militärgeschichtliches Forschungsamt’, since 2013 part of the ‘Zentrum für Militärgeschichte und Sozialwissenschaften der Bundeswehr’.

Jehuda L. Wallach, Das Dogma der Vernichtungsschlacht (Frankfurt a. M.: Bernard & Graefe Verlag 1967), 313.

Martin Rink, 50 Jahre Militärgeschichtliches Forschungsamt: eine Chronik (Berlin: Be.bra Wissenschaft 2007), 19–20.

Interview with Dr Bernhard Chiari, project director at the MGFA.

Bernhard Chiari (ed), Wegweiser zur Geschichte: Afghanistan, 3rd ed. (Paderborn: Schöningh 2009).

Interview with Brig. Gen. Reinhardt Zudrop.

Interview with Col. Norbert Hähnlein.

Interview with Col. Ewald Nau.

Helmut R. Hammerich, ‘‘‘Gegen Elitekämpfer helfen nur Jäger, keine Hausschuh-Truppen”: Die Bundeswehr und der Kleine Krieg im Kalten Krieg’, in Uwe Hartmann, Helmut R. Hammerich, and Claus von Rosen (eds), Jahrbuch Innere Führung 2010 (Berlin: Miles-Verlag 2010).

Heinz Schemmel, ‘Einsatzgrundsätze für den Kampf gegen Partisanen’, Wehrkunde 8/8 (1959).

Gen. Hans Henning von Sandrart, ‘Neue Herausforderungen an das strategische und operative Denken! – Ist Clausewitz noch zeitgemäß?,’ in Dietmar Schössler (ed.), Militärisch-wissenschaftliches Colloquium der Clausewitz-Gesellschaft e.V. ‘Die Entwicklung des Strategie- und Operationsbegriffs seit Clausewitz’ (Dresden 1995), 93 (Emphasis added).

Interview with Col. Ewald Nau.

Helmut Willmann, Gedanken zur Operationsführung im Deutschen Heer: Der neue Ansatz (Bonn 1998), 10–11.

Tom Dyson, ‘Managing Convergence: German Military Doctrine and Capabilities in the 21st Century’, Defence Studies 11/2 (June 2011), 253.

Interview with Col. Norbert Hähnlein.

Anthony King, The Transformation of Europe’s Armed Forces: from the Rhine to Afghanistan (Cambridge: CUP 2011). 279.

Interview with Col Rainer Buske.

Col. Rainer Buske, ‘Written reply to a research questionnaire prepared by the author’ (2010), 9.

Ibid., 6–7.

Timo Noetzel, ‘Germany’s Small War in Afghanistan: Military Learning amid Politico-strategic Inertia,’ Contemporary Security Policy 31/3 (2010), 487.

Ibid.

Ibid., 491.

Interview with Maj. Gen. Frank Leidenberger.

Noetzel, ‘Germany's Small War in Afghanistan: Military Learning amid Politico-strategic Inertia’, 503.

Interview with Col. Ewald Nau.

Quoted in: Marco Seliger, ‘Solche Gefechte haben wir noch nie geführt’ – Im Gespräch: Generalmajor Hans-Werner Fritz’, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 3 Sept. 2010.

Dieter Warnecke, ‘Kommandeur in Afghanistan’, if – Zeitschrift für Innere Führung 52/1 (2008), 9.

Generally, this expression has an ambivalent meaning as it can refer both to violent and non-violent measures; however, in its contextual use it can often be understood as a paraphrase of kinetic action.

Warnecke, ‘Kommandeur in Afghanistan’, 9–10.

‘Harekate Yolo II – Sicherheit für Nordafghanistan’, Europäische Sicherheit 5 (2008), 20.

Hans-Otto Budde, ‘Die Herausforderungen des deutschen Heeres’, Das schwarze Barett 42 (2010), 5–6.

Hans-Christoph Grohmann, Thorsten Kasper and Jan Hecht, ‘Der Einsatz der QRF 3 in Afghanistan’, Der Panzergrenadier 26 (2009), 27.

Jörg Vollmer, ‘Einsatzerfahrung als Kommandeur des Regionalkommando NORD vom 10. Januar bis 03. Oktober 2009’, Der Panzergrenadier 26 (2009), 15.

Christian Nitsche, ‘Verzweifelt in Kundus’, blog.tagesschau.de, 5 April 2010, <http://blog.tagesschau.de/?p = 7654>.

Rohrschneider, ‘Einsatz als PRT-Kommandeur in Kunduz’, 31.

Marco Seliger, Sterben für Kabul: Aufzeichnungen über einen verdrängten Krieg (Hamburg/Berlin/Bonn: Mittler 2011), 133.

Markus Frenzel, ‘Bundeswehrkommandeur verstößt gegen NATO Vorschriften’, Manuscript of the TV show FAKT, Broadcast by ARD on 4 Oct. 2011,  <www.mdr.de/fakt/afghanistan122-download.pdf>.

Philipp Münch, ‘Strategielos in Afghanistan – Die Operationsführung der Bundeswehr im Rahmen der ISAF’, SWP Studien (Berlin: Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik 2011), 27.

Ibid.

Interview with Lt. Col. Mirko Urbatschek.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Eric Sangar

Eric Sangar completed his undergraduate studies in Political Science, Philosophy, and Public Law at the University of Heidelberg in 2005, followed by a Master in International Security at Sciences Po Paris in 2008. During his studies, Eric Sangar collected research experience at the Chair of International Relations of the Institute of Political Science of the University of Heidelberg, at the Heidelberg Institute of Conflict Research, and at the Security Studies Center of the French Institute of International Relations (Ifri).

After his Master graduation, Sangar pursued his PhD at the European University Institute in Florence, which he defended in 2012. In his doctoral thesis, he explored the ways in which the British Army and the German Bundeswehr used historical experience as a source of lessons for the making of operational strategy within the ISAF mission in Afghanistan. For this research, he collected extensive empirical material in the military establishments of Germany and the UK and conducted a number of qualitative interviews with military officers, government officials, and policy experts.Since 2012, Eric Sangar has been working as a lecturer and research associate at the Department of International Relations and European Integration of the University of Stuttgart. He is part of a research team that is exploring cross-national dynamics of identity discourses in the context of media debates on wars and interventions since the end of the Cold War. ([email protected])

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