Student participation within teacher education: emphasising democratic values, engagement and learning for a future profession

ABSTRACT

The aim of this article is to explore student participation in teaching and learning, focusing on third-year students’ experiences in a Swedish teacher education programme. Student participation is here defined as students being active and engaged in the classroom; students impacting on curriculum design; and students’ feeling of belonging to a community. The research reported is based on an interview study and analyses processes, benefits and challenges of, as well as motivations for, student participation. The findings revealed that students have diverse understandings of student participation and that the degree of participation is dependent on students’ and teachers’ engagement, expectations and responsibility. Student teachers also connected student participation to their learning and future profession as teachers. The students mainly discussed intrinsic motivations (beneficial to learning) for student participation, but there were also traces of altruistic motivations (learning citizenship). Extrinsic motivations (university benefits), however, were absent. Voices of resistance to student participation were also present; these students preferred a more teacher-led education and were not used to a high degree of participation. Students’ understandings of student participation challenge teacher–student roles in teacher education specifically, but also in higher education generally. It is important to acknowledge students’ diverse understandings of student participation. Overall, based on students’ experiences, student participation creates engagement and motivation for learning here and now and for the future profession. The study indicates that student participation has an inherent value beyond benefitting measurable outcomes, where democratic values, engagement and learning for the future profession are promoted.

KEYWORDS:

• Student participation
• teacher education
• democracy
• engagement
• teacher–student roles

Introduction

The aim of this article is to explore student participation in teaching and learning, focusing on third-year students’ experiences in a Swedish teacher education programme. Student participation is here defined as students being active and engaged in the classroom, students impacting on curriculum design as well as students’ feeling of belonging to a community (Bovill & Bulley, 2011; Cook-Sather, Bovill, & Felten, 2014; Masika & Jones, 2016; Zepke, 2015). This article asks the following research questions: how can processes of student participation, focusing on teaching and learning in a teacher education programme, be defined? What are the benefits and challenges of student participation in teacher education? How can students’ experiences of student participation in teaching and learning be understood in relation to motivations for promoting student participation in teacher education?

The focus on student participation is especially relevant for student teachers as they, in their future profession, are expected to promote active participation among their pupils (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2011). Still, there is a risk that processes where students are engaged and active in higher education often are perceived as ubiquitous, positive and unproblematic, with the underlying assumption that observable and public student actions are desirable and other, more passive actions, such as listening and thinking are not perceived as signs of participation (Baron & Corbin, 2012; Gourlay, 2015). In addition, students’ active participation and engagement in their education has an elective affinity with neo-liberal trends, while being an important factor in quality measurements. Such trends can be connected to marketisation, focusing on performance, individualisation, competition and successful student achievements for future employability (Carey, 2013; Zepke, 2015, 2018). Therefore, the democratric values of student participation in higher education may run the risk of being marginalised (Bergmark & Westman, 2016; Boland, 2005; Zepke, 2015).

Besides questioning the concept of student participation, previous research also calls for additional studies in higher education, exploring student participation based on students’ experiences (McLeod, 2011; Seale, 2010) or collecting qualitative data not only on measurable outcomes of student participation, connected to the elective affinity between students’ participation and engagement in education (Zepke, 2015), but also on processes where attitudes and experiences of those involved are brought forward (Lizzio & Wilson, 2009).

Theoretical underpinnings

Researchers emphasise that student participation involves, for example, students and faculty working together in partnerships; students having an active role in co-creating curriculum with the teachers; and students acting as agents of educational change (Bergmark & Westman, 2016; Bovill, 2014; Bovill & Bulley, 2011; Cook-Sather et al., 2014). Zepke (2015) underlines that students’ active participation, whether in classroom, in curriculum management or in partnerships with other stakeholders, may open for acknowledging critical active citizenship as well as students’ social well-being, beyond measurable outcomes and high achievement. This holistic view is in line with Masika and Jones (2016), who emphasise belonging as part of student participation, signified by a feeling of being included and accepted by others – that is, being a member of a community of practice through collaboration and communication with peers.

Student participation challenging teacher and student roles

Encouraging students to actively participate and to have an impact on curriculum design may entail the need for re-examining teacher and student roles, which in turn impacts social relationships and thereby the hierarchy (Cook-Sather, 2014). In many respects, higher education is based on the perspective of the university teacher – defining what is important for students, what they can learn and what they should do to attain the set objectives (Bovill, Cook-Sather, Felten, Millard, & Moore-Cherry, 2016). The culture of teacher dominance in higher education can hamper teachers’ and students’ development of new roles and viewing education from other perspectives. Organisational structures may also be a hindrance to student participation (Bovill et al., 2016). Nevertheless, there is a need to challenge the traditional teacher and student roles, a task that ‘advocates a greater democratisation of the educational process’ (Bovill et al., 2016, p. 196).

Motivations for student participation

The motivations for working with student participation in higher education can be synthesised in the following aspects: extrinsic, intrinsic and altruistic. Extrinsic motivations involve students’ rights to participate in decisions affecting them, as stated in policies of higher education in various countries (Bartley, Dimenäs, & Hallnäs, 2010; Lizzio & Wilson, 2009; Seale, Gibson, Haynes, & Potter, 2015). The justification for promoting student participation is that it benefits the university (Lizzio & Wilson, 2009). Student participation is perceived as positively impacting attainment and student completion rate, which are central factors in quality measurements (Broucker, De Wit, & Verhoeven, 2018; Carey, 2013). However, these positive impacts of student participation may also be seen as measurable benefits (grades, completion of degree) for the students themselves, not only for the university.

Intrinsic motivations can be described as students’ involvement in educational activities that promote their learning, development and motivation. The justification for promoting student participation is that it benefits the students themselves, beyond grades and successful completion of degree (Bartley et al., 2010; Bergmark & Westman, 2016; Lizzio & Wilson, 2009). Opportunities for participation during students’ university education contribute to their deeper understanding and ownership of the learning processes (Bovill & Bulley, 2011).

Altruistic motivations can be understood as students’ participation in higher education as part of a democratic mission, in which students learn citizenship. Students are viewed as partners, with a commitment to learning and practising democratic principles – or democratic socialisation (Bartley et al., 2010; Boland, 2005). In today’s society, anti-pluralist and anti-democratic views are on the rise, with subordination of minorities and questionable truths being launched, resulting in issues of educational equality being threatened. This accentuates the question of how democracy is perceived and played out in education, where it is important that students’ voices are heard and their active participation is enabled. The justification for promoting student participation is that it benefits the society over the long term (Lizzio & Wilson, 2009).

Method

Participants and data collection

The research reported in this article is based on an interview study conducted during 2016 at our university, within the Department of Education. The study employed an opportunistic selection of participants based on availability (cf. Bryman, 2011). We invited 28 third-year Swedish students enrolled in the upper secondary school teacher programme to participate in the study and eight students volunteered to participate. The students were six females and two males in the ages between 24 and 41. In the invitation and during the interviews, it was stressed that the focus of this study was their experiences of student participation in teaching and learning within teacher education so far. The numbers of participants and the setting of the study, Sweden, can be considered as a limitation of the study. However, while connecting the national case to literature based on international perspectives, the findings are elaborated on in relation to the international context.

The second author conducted semi-structured interviews (cf. Kvale & Brinkmann, 2014). The interviews focused on exploring experiences relating to student participation and influence on decision-making in teaching and learning during their teacher education; the connection between student participation and learning; and suggestions on how to improve student participation in teacher education. It was important to stay open to students’ experiences, with the aims and objectives of the research in mind; therefore, clarifying follow-up questions were posed. The interviews were conducted in Swedish, lasted from 30 to 50 minutes each and transcribed verbatim in the original language. Students’ statements quoted in the findings section have accordingly been translated into English.

In accordance with ethics law (Swedish Government, 2003), informed consent was obtained from the students. All participants were informed that they had the right to terminate participation in the study without reason and that the empirical data would be handled confidentially.

Data analysis

In this study, we used latent content analysis (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004). The overall unit of analysis was student participation in teaching and learning within teacher education, based on the students’ experiences. The units of meaning were based on the research questions, and defined as ‘processes of student participation in teaching and learning’, ‘benefits and challenges of student participation in teacher education’, and ‘motivations for promoting student participation in higher education’. The units of meaning served as guiding principles, as they helped us in the condensation phase, comparing similarities and differences and finding patterns in the empirical data. When moving on to the abstraction phase, emerging themes were formulated. In our attempt to understand the students’ experiences of student participation in teaching and learning, we found it crucial to go beyond individual experiences and focus on the collective understanding of the research topic.

The findings consist of three themes, with underlying aspects, which will be explored in the following.

Findings

Diverse understandings of student participation in teacher education

The first theme illustrates the students’ diverse understandings of the concept of student participation in teaching and learning within a teacher education programme.

Student participation, influence on decision-making and belonging – interrelated concepts

The first aspect illuminates that the students expressed diverse views on what student participation entails. Some students could not separate the meanings of student participation and influence on decision-making. ‘I think they are very much connected, influence on decisions and participation’ (3), ‘When you can make an impact you feel involved’ (2). Other students separated the concepts: ‘[Participation means] you are able to partake in the education, maybe in planning, implementation, and assessment’ (6) and ‘Participation is also about how open or flexible the tasks are constructed’ (1). Participation was also connected to feelings of inclusion, of belonging, and of being important as a student; this is exemplified in the following quotes: ‘ … participation, it feels more like that you are included  … I feel valued when I come to the classes’ (5).

Some students regarded influence on decision-making being related to having opportunities to affect decisions taken by others. ‘That we could have an impact [on the study guide] even if we didn’t know the content’ (3). The students gave examples of influence on decision-making as having choices regarding literature, working partners, timetables and working and examination forms: ‘Choosing what chapter to read, who to work with’ (4), and ‘Frequently, we can have an influence on schedules and time tables  … we can also have an impact on dates for assignments’ (2). In addition, evaluations were also highlighted as a form of partaking in decision-making. ‘After some classes, we have been invited to write reflections on what was good and bad  … that entails some kind of influence’ (5).

In contrast to the above quotes, a few students also held the opinion that the teachers should decide and plan the courses, handing over the decision-making to the teachers.

In courses, there is less space [for influence], it should be decided beforehand. While we, the students, do not know the course content, the teachers must decide  … then students have different opinions, so I think it is good that it is decided  … often, it is better that the teacher chooses. (4)

Sometimes the students felt that they were perceived as demanding by the teachers when asking for influence on decisions or wanting to participate to a higher degree in class, as illustrated by following conversation:

Student 

… we feel like the whining class, the ones that always complain and nag and … ‘this is too much work and that … ’

Researcher

So, you have an expectation and a wish to participate and when you express that you are perceived as whiny? Is that how I should understand what you are saying?

S

Exactly, and you experience yourself as a whiny pupil. Yes. (6)

The students have diverse understandings of student participation, where active participation in educational activitites influence, on decision-making, and belonging were interrelated.

Characteristics of a participatory education

The second aspect emphasises the students’ understanding of what kind of education they experienced as participatory. The students valued varied instruction with both a clear design and an orientation towards goals as important for student participation. ‘We varied the classes [referring to a specific course], we had different ways of working … you could see that it was carefully planned for. And I have missed that in many other courses’ (5).

The different working methods embraced not only different exercises for practising teaching skills and reflected the roles and responsibilities as a future teacher – as value exercises, for example – but also different forms of dialogues, discussions and group work, as well as creative teaching methods such as cases and role-play. The students highlighted the discussions as important from a participatory perspective but stressed the importance of prepared students and a present teacher as moderator.

The dialogues, discussions, and argumentations are examples of methods that enhance student participation in class, which demands that the students are prepared, but also that the teacher asks follow-up questions as well as open, explorative, and problematizing questions, raises the level of the discussion … the teacher need to be present in the group discussions. (8)

Case and role-plays were examples of working methods that provided opportunities for participation, engagement and activity. ‘In these cases, you get to know all other students’ experiences and questions, it yields a high degree of participation’ (7) and ‘Do you take it seriously [the role plays] it is … a good task for staging something. At the same time, it is enjoyable and fun. You should not underestimate the fact that there is fun in your education … it gives joy and you learn more’ (1). Creative methods were not often used in teacher education, but pointed out as good examples. Role-plays added value to the students’ learning: ‘It provides an opportunity to understand other people. I can see what other people have learnt  … There are other benefits that cannot be counted, it deals more with how you are as a person’ (1). Another student described how the role-plays expanded thinking regarding alternative perspectives on a situation. ‘I have learned that you can approach a situation from many angles, which I tested in the role plays … an ‘aha’ experience: there isn’t only one way, there are many’ (3).

Accordingly, participatory education involves varied instruction and actively partaking in various educational activities through different working methods.

Students’ and teachers’ engagement, expectations and responsibility

The second theme reveals different strategies that students pointed out as necessary for promoting student participation.

Attitude and engagement

The first aspect comprises the importance of teachers’ openness, flexibility and release of full control, and their ability to understand the students, connect to them, and build relationships with them to create an open climate. In addition, students’ own attitudes and engagement were emphasised. It was evident that student participation, according to these students, was closely connected to the teacher/s running the course: ‘It [the degree of participation] depended on which teacher was teaching [the course]’ (2).

Teachers’ relational ability was felt to be important for students’ participation, for example, a teacher’s willingness to be authentic and true without formal distance. The students highlighted the importance of feeling safe or secure and getting to know the people they are supposed to interact with, to be able to share thoughts and questions – that is, to participate.

You need to be personal without being private. You don’t need to be distancing towards the students even if you have a lot of things to do. We need to get to know the people to be able to share things. (1)

Another aspect of teachers’ relational skills appreciated and emphasised by the students was teacher care. ‘As a student, you definitely appreciate when a teacher cares  … get in touch beforehand and expresses that [he/she] are looking forward to the course’ (8). Creating an open, appreciative and permissive climate was underlined by the students as important for student participation.

[I]t should be a tolerant atmosphere where you can express different thoughts  …  If you feel you have the right to interrupt or the right to express your opinion or ask questions you get more engaged, then if you feel that when every time I say something it becomes difficult for the teacher because they want to stick with their plan. (6)

In addition, flexibility and distributing part of the control to the students seem to be strategies for creating an open climate, according to the students. They want the teachers to frame and provide structures to the learning situation while at the same time being open-minded to students’ suggestions and needs.

The teacher has planned [to show] this Power Point and we are going to follow that order, and there is no space to talk about what we experienced as difficult … I think some teachers have difficulties in letting go of that control. (6)

The students regarded it a demanding task for university teachers to work with student participation. This is because higher education is strongly regulated by external forces and frameworks that sometimes make things difficult, as many issues are already settled. ‘It is hard to talk about influence on decision-making as there are so many things that are settled beforehand, but the teacher can, however, be flexible within those specific frameworks’ (5). The demanding task was also related to who the teacher is and what experiences the teachers have. The flexibility is here related to courage, in terms of being prepared to let go of control and to be vulnerable.

As a human, it requires experiences of life, an inner strength and will. You need to be able to show vulnerability if you want to be able to invite students to be part of everything, if you want to negotiate everything, if you don’t want to take the ordinary [teacher] role. (1)

Regarding the significance of students’ own attitudes and engagement for creating a participatory climate, the results showed that although students wanted to have influence and participate to a great degree, they sometimes showed resistance or hesitation when not being used to this way of working within a course.

When something differs from the tradition we are very sceptical at first. What is this? How will this work? But when you try it, you realize it is fun, that you learned a lot, like when we worked with case and role-plays. That wasn’t something we used to do … You are so tied to the structures you’re used to. (6)

Accordingly, teachers’ and students’ attitudes, willingness and engagement emerged as important for creating a participatory climate in class.

Responsibility and knowledge

The second aspect concerns teachers’ responsibility for being goal-oriented and giving a clear introduction, as well as students’ responsibilities. The teachers’ responsibility involved sharing their great knowledge and engagement, understanding what is difficult and new for the students, and planning from that, as well as aligning the lesson with the goals of the course.

In the following quotations, two students expressed the importance of teachers sharing their knowledge and engagement: ‘[T]he most important thing with a teacher is definitely that you are really interested in what you are doing, because it sort of spreads to the class’ (8) and ‘[I]t feel like much more meaningful when a teacher is burning for something and you feel that you would like to learn that too, because this is what the teacher believes is important’ (5). Therefore, a teacher can in a way act like an engine, combining their knowledge about the content and the course with an orientation towards a goal, which guarantees students’ learning and participation. In addition, the students also emphasised how teachers’ responsibility needs to be accompanied by the students’ own responsibilities.

It is necessary that the student take responsibility for having read, and being able to participate to get the most out of the education, and the teachers must take responsibility for thinking that this is new material for the student  …  It is difficult to participate, both in discussions and sharing of thoughts as well as understanding exams if you don’t have the time. (2)

Many students expressed how they felt that the responsibility for lessons faded away in situations where students were supposed to participate, both regarding the content, its theorisation and critical analysis. ‘It isn’t meant to be that participation and influence makes the teachers leaving the students alone in the classroom. They should be there and problematise as part of the instruction or the seminars’ (8).

The results showed how the students emphasised their different student personalities as something affecting their ability to take part in activities. Accordingly, the students found it important that the teachers take the responsibility for creating opportunities for all students to participate. It is important that teachers are active in the processes and seminars, making it possible for the quiet voices to be heard.

R

Do you mean that there are quite high demands on you to take personal responsibility?

S

Well, for me personally I don’t think so, because I seldom think it is hard, but I think it is for many others, hard [to participate]. For example, in seminars, there are many [students] that don’t say anything and still pass. Personally, I think it is the teacher’s responsibility to support and strengthen them, since it’s not because they haven’t read. They can be very prepared, but they don’t say anything as they haven’t got questions. I think it is strange that the teacher doesn’t take command over the situation and include them. It can be done in a pedagogical way, without pointing someone out. (8)

Some students called for other ways to participate except for being in the spotlight in the classroom, ‘[Y]ou don’t have to be seen and heard, there must be other ways to participate’ (6).

Another kind of teacher responsibility was the responsibility for a clear and distinct introduction when starting to work with student participation more extensively, as such situations may feel very unsecure for the students. The students regarded some teachers as having an ambition to create opportunities for student participation, but failing to create true participation. ‘It feels like they try to make it participatory but is just gets messy’ (5) and ‘Many students come from a tradition where everything is ready-made, what you should do exactly, in different steps. That transition can be quite tough, to learn to think for yourself, which is suddenly being demanded’ (1).

In the following quotation, a student talks about courses in which s/he felt included and being able to exercise influence.

Well, they [the teachers] invited the students beforehand, in good time, to a meeting where we participated in the planning [of lessons] and exams. How do we examine this? What is a reasonable amount of workload in terms of reading? Does this seem like good literature? (6)

The students pointed to the need for mutual responsibility of teachers and students in promoting participatory education. In addition, teacher engagement and knowledge, and their expectations of students, were found to be significant.

Student participation and the connection to learning and a future teaching profession

The third theme addresses whether the students consider participation to be important for their learning, and if so, in what way participation enhances student learning.

Teacher expectations crucial for student learning

The first aspect shows the ways in which the students attributed importance to teachers’ expectations, which relate to students’ engagement, motivation and learning. ‘The teacher was engaged and you try to do that yourself as well, because it’s a huge difference whether you expect a person to fail or that it should be in a certain way – then it often become that way’ (1). Similarly, another student described the expectations from the teacher as a driving force for learning: ‘If a teacher expects something from me, I want to achieve that. It’s like a carrot [instead of a stick] in another way, this teacher notices me and wants me to perform’ (5). According to the students, the teachers often expect them to be willing to work hard for an education that they have chosen by themselves and they pay for. Some students were, in a way, disappointed in their course mates for not engaging and working hard as they are part of each other’s learning environment.

They [the teachers] presuppose that as you are there on voluntary basis, as you pay for your education, as you take loans you expect them [the students] to do their work and fight for it. But, humans don’t work that way, unfortunately. (1)

According to the students, low expectations affect motivation for active participation, which in turn has an impact on learning.

In this latest course, I felt like they [the teachers] thought we were children, they talked to us like that, and: ‘Do you know how to reference correctly?’ Well, it felt like … I mean, I have read three years at the university, I know how to reference … regarding us as if we know nothing. It’s not fun. (8)

The student described the feeling of being degraded, as lacking knowledge and competence, which fostered negative feelings.

Connections between participation and learning

The second aspect hightlights the connection between student participation and learning. It becomes prominent in the following quotations, where the students answered the researchers’ question about the ways the students found participation significant for learning: ‘[M]y experience is that you learn more if you participate’ (8) and ‘[S]tudent participation means that you tackle the assignment so that you learn something, advantageously collaborate with other students … that you take responsibility for your own learning and for passing the course’ (4). Another student expressed the connection between participation and learning in terms of developing oneself, learning to be more self-confident.

It benefits me more to discuss with others, to think aloud in a way. And I think I was a much quieter person before, when I was in the first year [of teacher education]. I didn’t dare to contribute in any discussions, but then, I don’t know when it actually happened, but, well now it’s more like ‘Hello, I wanna say something’. (3)

The students also connected their learning in teacher education to their future profession as teachers. How the education is organised matters for their learning of professional competences. For example, the opportunity to practice teaching:

S

If you think about teacher education, I believe it is important that you are there to learn how to teach  … You have to participate … 

R

To promote collaboration – do I understand you correctly?

S

No, not collaboration, but to practice your future profession. If I am going to teach a class with 30 students, it is foolish to have practised with a class [in teacher education] with two (4).

Participation involved not only the teaching methods of teacher education, but forms a central part of the students’ future teaching mission. The students gave examples of an understanding of participation in schools that is not free from obstacles, which means that they need to be flexible in their role as teachers and adapt to the students at hand.

S

They [the students] can participate in deciding on working methods  … But it’s part of the [national] curriculum that the students should be able to influence. You have to do as much as you can in order for the students to have influence then. But it may be easier if you perceive that it is about adjusting the teaching according to the groups.

R

What are the major obstacles, as you see it?

S

For the first, it takes time from the teaching, to decide what to do.

R

You mean the process?

S

Yes, and that the students do not know what they are going to learn so how could they know. That’s the other thing. And the third thing is that they [the students] want different things, so what do I do when some want to do it this way and others want it some other way. Who are allowed to have influence? (4)

Students found that participatory methods used during teacher education supported them in their development towards becoming teachers.

R

Do you think that working with cases in the tasks has invited participation?

S

Yes, case method is really good. We have always been presented with cases that are reasonable to expect in the teaching profession. While being presented with such cases in teacher education, you don’t have to be thrown into something, you can act professionally because you get the opportunity to try  … you have read something in the literature and then you can also apply your knowledge. (2)

The quote emphasises the link between teacher education and teaching practice: the two contexts need to be aligned to each other.

Still, some students stressed that learning does not presuppose influence on decision-making, but active participation in your own learning process:

I’m not that dependent on influence in order to learn, I can accept a course as it is without having any influence at all, learning what someone else has decided. But I need to be active to learn … at the same time I can learn all by myself, reading a book and then you are not particularly participatory, or … it depends on how you define participation. (4)

There were also a few critical voices about student participation and the connection to future teaching. ‘[I]t takes time from the instruction, the pupils don’t know what they are going to learn so how can they possibly know [how to work]; if they suggest different things, who shall then decide?’ (4). Student participation can be perceived as something difficult, which implies that the student teachers need to develop competence in negotiating between different perspectives in teaching.

Discussion

The findings revealed that the students have diverse understandings of student participation and that the degree of participation is dependent on students’ and teachers’ engagement, expectations and responsibility. Student teachers also connected student participation to their learning and future profession as teachers, beyond measurable outcomes as, for example, grades and completion of degree.

The students described different components such as belonging, being active participants in education, and influence on decision-making, which echoes previous research in the field (cf. Bovill, 2014; Bovill & Bulley, 2011; Cook-Sather et al., 2014). Students can have an impact on their education in different phases of their education: planning, execution and evaluation. The students described strong connections between participation and learning in general, and especially for their future profession as teachers. Strategies for promoting participation in teacher education were depicted as teachers’ and students’ engagement, expectations and responsibility, highly dependent on openness and flexibility. This theme of shared responsibility and mutal engagement is also stressed in previous research, for example, by Cook-Sather et al. (2014) and Cook-Sather (2015), who emphasise the value of including students’ experiences and perspectives in education. In addition, the students found that participatory education values collaborative learning and a variation of teaching methods – also significant for a multidimensional view of learning (cf. Bergmark & Westman, 2016; Cook-Sather, 2015). A multidimensional learning view can sometimes go against contemporary linear notions of learning in higher education, which may therefore represent a challenge for both teachers and students in higher education (Bergmark & Westman, 2016; Westman & Bergmark, 2018). Within such a view, letting multiple voices be heard and allowing diversity is central, emphasising that learning occurs in social and physical contexts where individual experiences are valued as well as all aspects of a human being, not only cognition. To include multiple perspectives in teaching and learning, teachers need to be willing to open up for students’ diverse needs and relationships – ‘seeking and affirming differences, and embracing diversity as a resource’ (Cook-Sather, 2015, p. 22).

Even though most students found that participation benefitted their learning and development, aspects of resistance to student participation could also be found. This indicates that the students do not perceive student participation as an entirely benign concept as they regard there are challenges associated with it. Students questioned the fact that student participation needs to be active and public actions where strategies for promoting participation can involve other ways besides activities where students are being heard and seen publicly in the classroom. This complies with the call from Gourlay (2015) to critically review what can be considered as signs of participation. According to the students, some of the reasons – for example, not wanting to influence on decision-making, were lack of experience of a specific course or traditional views of teacher and student roles. The views of student-teacher roles related to different, sometimes opposing, expectations of and responsibilities for processes in education. University teachers and students can feel uncomfortable when inviting students to take an active role and it is both an emotionally and intellectually challenging process (Bergmark & Westman, 2016; Bovill, Cook-Sather, & Felten, 2011; Cook-Sather, 2014). Working with student participation requires new ways of thinking about student and teacher roles (Bergmark & Westman, 2016; Cook-Sather, 2014; McMahon & Zyngier, 2009). Bovill (2014) points out that student participation does not diminish teacher expertise, but it changes their role into being a ‘facilitator of learning’ (p. 22).

The students mainly discussed intrinsic motivations for student participation, focusing on inherent values. They regarded participation as beneficial to their learning and development, and engagement in their studies. The underlying assumptions of intrinsic motivations denote a multidimensional view of learning and emphasising democratic values (Bergmark & Westman, 2016; Westman & Bergmark, 2018). Cook-Sather et al. (2014) claim when students get engaged in their education, it involves a will and motivation for deep approaches to learning, as well as responsibility for their own learning through autonomy and agency in terms of choice and control in learning. Dialogues and being able to express one’s thoughts in discussions are ways for students to be active in learning processes (Bovill et al., 2011), something described by the students as important.

In the empirical data, you can also find traces of altruistic motivations, when students connected participation to their future profession as teachers. This is of certain relevance since the students are going to work as teachers with a mission to promote democratic values and enable critical active citizenship, especially important in a globalised society where educational equality is being threatened (Lizzio & Wilson, 2009; Zepke, 2015, 2018).

Extrinsic motivations for student participation seem to be a ‘non-question’ for students since they never expressed ideas that the university would benefit from having a participatory education or that such motivations relate to individual student benefits, such as a higher degree of attainment and completion rate.

Conclusions and implications

To conclude, we find it important to acknowledge students’ diverse understandings of student participation. Overall, based on students’ experiences, student participation creates engagement and motivation for learning here and now and for the future profession. In addition, it is also valuable to emphasise that the students focused on intrinsic and altruistic motivations. The study indicates that student participation has an inherent value beyond benefitting measurable outcomes, where democratic values, engagement and learning for the future profession are promoted. This is of certain relevance for student teachers, as it is a central part of the future profession to promote participation for their pupils. It is also vital that student participation permeates strategies of organising teacher education, being a continuous process and not based on individual teachers’ engagement.

As student participation is a contemporary issue in higher education, we hope that our attempt to create a deeper understanding of the concept in teacher education can have bearings on other higher education contexts and programmes.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

ORCID

Ulrika Bergmark http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7952-5111

Susanne Westman http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3657-6223