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ABSTRACT
Deterrence and labeling theories predict opposing effects of sanctions on criminal behavior, and this diversity in the expected effects of sanctions is also apparent in the empirical literature. Sherman's (1993) defiance theory has been proposed to explain the conditions under which punishment may either increase or decrease crime. In a reanalysis of the Police Services Study data, we examine how police behaviors may influence the likelihood that citizens will respond with defiant behavior in encounters with police officers. Consistent with defiance theory, we find that police actions that are likely to be perceived as unfair and stigmatizing increase the likelihood that citizens behave defiantly toward police officers. Directions for future research are also identified.
