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Abstract
The United States Federal Government has repeatedly put the people of Vieques, Puerto Rico in harm’s way due to the injurious after-effects of air-to-ground weapons testing. Most of the harm happened during the Navy’s 70 years on the island. Yet, the harm continues today considering that aspects of the cleanup count as continued acts of environmental injustice, viewed within the context of the island’s colonial history. Usually, this harm deals with public health issues, but the remediation protocols do not account for considerations such as cultural identity and heritage. This paper shows how the procedures for environmental remediation in Vieques qualify as a case of environmental injustice according to Robert M. Figueroa’s ‘environmental justice paradigm.’ The aim of employing this kind of approach is to pinpoint the underlying reasons why this is a case of environmental injustice.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Robert M. Figueroa for his comments on an earlier draft of this paper. I am indebted to Arturo Massol-Deya for several conversations and hospitality. Robert Rabin deserves recognition for sharing his insights about Vieques’ history with me. I would also like to thank Daniel Rodriguez, Remedial Project Manager, Vieques Field Office, of the US Environmental Protection Agency for his cooperation.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1. For instance, US Navy used the unpopulated rural Hawaiian island of Kaho’olawe as a bombing range, which became an environmental justice issue. Even though this case is considered to be a case of environmental injustice, it was never declared a Superfund site. The US EPA was involved in the cleanup process, but they did not serve as the leading authority. For more information (see Blackford, Citation2004).
2. References to the majority of this literature are found in this paper. The primary article in reference is Sherrie L. Baver’s ‘Environmental Justice and the Cleanup of Vieques.’ In her assessment of EJ and the cleanup of Vieques, Baver focuses on two primary points. She argues that Vieques is unique because its geographical features (such as hurricanes, public accessibility, and tidal action) pose additional risks to public health. Her other focus remains on the fact that the people of Vieques did not have a voice in the designation of the wildlife preserve. For more information (see Baver, Citation2006a).
3. According to Rodriguez, D., US Environmental Protection Agency, Remedial Project Manager, Vieques Field Office, (personal communication 21 May 2012).
4. In this sense, ‘any agency’ refers to any federally regulated party involved in the remediation. For instance, this could include the US Navy, EPA, ATSDR, or any other contracted agency.
5. I am not claiming that Vieques is the only EJ case that deals with heritage and cultural identity. Yet, these aspects have been harmed to a degree that calls for a specialized investigation, which is why I employ a complex EJ paradigm. Other cases could benefit from this approach such as the case of Goshute Indians, a tribe dealing with sovereignty issues related to self-determination, colonialism, and high-level radioactive waste. For more information (see Ishiyama, Citation2003).
6. Schlosberg (Citation2007).
7. For a complete understanding of how I am using the term, ‘recognition,’ (see Fraser & Honneth, Citation2001).
8. Schlosberg is referring to Pulido Citation(1996a, p. 13). Pulido maintains that cultural meaning and identity are primary concerns for EJ struggles. For a succinct account focusing on unitary identity and EJ (see Pulido, Citation1996b, pp. 145–180). In addition to Pulido, Schlosberg considers Tesh and William (Citation1996, pp. 285–305). Aside from Figueroa, Schlosberg also looks at Pena.
9. Recent research suggests that, contrary to the studies that McCaffrey employs (along with several scholars), most of the farming prior to 1930 was on farms of varying scales. It was not until the late 1930 that the Aguirre Sugar Company, the South Porto Rico Sugar Company, and the Fajardo Sugar Company would dominate the Puerto Rican sugar industry. For more information (see Solá, Citation2011, pp. 349–372).
10. Even though some scholars prefer the term ‘imperialism,’ the majority of sources cited in this paper use the term ‘colonialism.’ In turn, I am sticking with it also.
11. Laura Briggs argues that there was not a campaign for sterilization in Puerto Rico. For more information (see Briggs, Citation2002). Her views, however, have been challenged in many ways. For a critical book review of Brigg’s views (see Anderson, Citation2004, pp. 250–251).
12. This is primarily a problem for intergenerational or reproductive justice claims, which is likely to be an increasingly problematic environmental justice issue for the people of Vieques also. Not all of the health related impacts can be assessed until more generations have been properly studied in the future. There are similar EJ cases, such as those groups suffering from the long-term effects of nuclear testing, with greater concern for this notion than is present in Vieques studies. For more information (see Cook, Citation2012, pp. 1645–1649).
13. Although the aim of this paper is not to argue against utilitarianism per se, but this case does provide a striking challenge for it.
14. Here is the press release verbatum: From 1999 through 2003, ATSDR examined whether past activities of the US Navy had exposed Vieques residents to harmful levels of chemicals. In 2009, the agency began updating its original findings in response to requests from Congress and others. ATSDR’s review of the new and previous data still could not identify a relationship between military activities and health problems experienced by the island’s residents. Agency for Toxic Substance and Disease Registry. Accessed 1 June 2012. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/news/displaynews.asp?PRid=2520
15. According to Rodriguez, D., US Environmental Protection Agency, Remedial Project Manager, Vieques Field Office, (personal communication 21 May 2012).
16. Recall that (O’ Rourke) these points include the following: ‘(1) lost economic development potential due to lack of access to most of the island’s land, interruptions to local fishing operations, and the effect of DoN’s [Department of the Navy] activities on reducing the potential for developing the island as a tourist destination; (2) the inadequacy of past DoN economic development efforts intended to compensate the Vieques community for this economic loss.’