The process toward (violent) extremism: an integrated theoretical model using a theory knitting approach

ABSTRACT

A key challenge within the (violent) extremism research field is building a comprehensive understanding of the process toward (violent) extremism. The lack of overarching models and the fact that explanatory models of (violent) extremism are often isolated/stand-alone, fuels disagreement on how to understand the phenomenon. The goal of this article is to build such an integrated theoretical model that addresses two knowledge gaps within the existing literature: ‘why’ and ‘how’ does an individual become sympathetic to and/or involved in (violent) extremism? Based on a scoping review of 1856 records, we selected ten models of (violent) extremism. These models were then analysed using the ‘theory knitting approach’, searching to identify the overlapping and non-overlapping aspects between the different models. By incorporating the common analysed features and unique contributions of the models, we developed an integrated theoretical model of (violent) extremism as a non-linear and dynamic process model combining an insider and outsider perspective on (violent) extremism.

KEYWORDS:

• (violent) extremism
• theory knitting
• scoping review
• integrated theoretical model
• insider and outsider perspective

Data availability statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analyzed in this study.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 As we refer to both violent and non-violent extremism, we put ‘(violent)’ in parentheses.

2 In the work of Ward and Siegert (2002), the authors refer to a level I analysis, a level II analysis and a level III analysis. In this context, we could place our ‘why-question’ on level I and II, and the ‘how-question’ on level III. See also Ward & Hudson, 1998.

3 We do not include working papers/pre-prints or research notes.

4 305 records on Proquest, 189 records on Web of Science, 287 records on Scopus, 895 records on Google Scholar and 180 records on Tandfonline.

5 We should stress that a more classical perspective on personality functioning – stressing the temporally and situationally stable presence of personality characteristics (traits) or even psychopathology – would lead us back to a more deterministic view of predisposing life experiences, and thus back to the unresolved issues identified previously. The non-linear aspects of the (violent) extremism process can only be conceptualised when taking a dynamic process model of personal functioning as a starting point.

6 Except for the violence-justifying in-group and ideology, we do not consider these key factors specific to their effect. For example, a predisposing life experience(s) is one of the codetermining factors of (violent) extremism. However, it is not specific to it as such predisposing life experiences may also play a causal role in other types of crime. On the other hand, experiencing predisposing life events does not automatically lead to (violent) extremism.

7 Our integrated theoretical model is currently being tested on the basis of in-depth interviews with (violent) extremist individuals and family members of (violent) extremist persons. On the basis of these data, we will test (and possibly reject or thoroughly revise) our model and evaluate it according to theory appraisal criteria (e.g., coherence, simplicity, depth, empirical adequacy).

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by Research Foundation Flanders: [Grant Number File number: 11F9919N].