The process toward (violent) extremism: an integrated theoretical model using a theory knitting approach

References

• Arksey, H., & O’Malley, L. (2005). Scoping studies: Towards a methodological framework. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 8, 19–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/1364557032000119616
   Google Scholar
• Atran, S. (2016). The devoted actor. Unconditional commitment and intractable conflict across cultures. Current Anthropology, 57(13), S192–S203. https://doi.org/10.1086/685495
   Google Scholar
• Bjørgo, T. (2009). Processes of disengagement from violent groups of the extreme right. In T. Bjørgo & J. Horgan (Eds.), Leaving terrorism behind: Individual and collective disengagement. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Boag, S. (2018). Personality dynamics, motivation, and the logic of explanation. Review of General Psychology, 22(4), 427–436. https://doi.org/10.1037/gpr0000150
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borum, R. (2003). Understanding of the terrorist mind-set. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 72(7), 7–10.
   Google Scholar
• Borum, R. (2011). Radicalization into violent extremism i: A review of social science theories. Journal of Strategic Security, 4(4), 7–36. https://doi.org/10.5038/1944-0472.4.4.1
   Google Scholar
• Borum, R. (2017). The etiology of radicalization. In G. LaFree & J. D. Freilich (Eds.), The handbook of The criminology of terrorism. Wiley Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Brucan, S. (1986). Ideology and institutions in peace and war. In M. L. Foster & R. A. Rubinstein (Eds.), Peace and war: cross-cultural perspectives. Transaction Books.
   Google Scholar
• Buschman, J., & van Beek, D. (2003). A clinical model for the treatment of personality disordered sexual offenders: An example of theory knitting. A Journal of Research and Treatment, 15(3), 183–199.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cameron, L. D., & Jago, L. (2013). Cognitive mediators. In M. D. Gellman & J. R. Turner (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Behavioral medicine. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1005-9_1119
   Google Scholar
• Christmann, K. (2012). Preventing Religious Radicalisation and Violent Extremism: A Systematic Review of the Research Literature, Applied Criminology Centre, University of Huddersfield.
   Google Scholar
• Dalgaard-Nielsen, A. (2010). Violent radicalization in Europe: What we know and what we do not know. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 33(9), 797–814. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2010.501423
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Decoene, S. (2016). Over stoute dingen doen. Een inleiding criminologische psychologie (doing bad things. An introduction to criminological psychology). ACCO.
   Google Scholar
• Della Porta, D. (2013). Clandestine political violence. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139043144
   Google Scholar
• De Pelecijn, L., Decoene, S., & Hardyns, W. (2021). ‘If I said I trust you, I would be lying’: Reflections and recommendations for conducting interviews with (violent) extremist prisoners. Journal For Deradicalization, (27), 284–310.
   Google Scholar
• Durnescu, I. (2018). Deradicalisation or disengagement? That is the question, CEP. Accessed at 8 July 2018. https://www.cep-probation.org/deradicalisation-or-disengagement-that-is-the-question/
   Google Scholar
• Dweck, C. S. (2017). From needs to goals and representations: Foundations for a unified theory of motivation, personality, and development. Psychological Review, 124(6), 689–719. https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000082
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eagleton, T. (1991). Ideology: An introduction. Verso.
   Google Scholar
• Ferguson, N., & McAuley, J.. (2021). Dedicated to the cause: Identity development and violent extremism. European Psychologist, 26(1), 6–14. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000414
   Google Scholar
• Freilich, J. D., & LaFree, G. (2015). Criminology theory and terrorism: Introduction to the special issue. Terrorism and Political Violence, 27(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2014.959405
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gill, P. (2007). A multi-dimensional approach to suicide bombing. International Journal of Conflict and Violence, 1(2), 142–159.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griffin, R. (2012). The metapolitics of terrorist radicalization. In R. Griffin (Ed.), Terrorist's creed (pp. 88–110). Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Hafez, M., & Mullins, C. (2015). The radicalization puzzle: A theoretical synthesis of empirical approaches to homegrown extremism. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 38(11), 958–975. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2015.1051375
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamm, M., & Spaaij, R. (2015). Lone Wolf Terrorism in America: Using Knowledge of Radicalization Pathways to Forge Prevention Strategies. www.ncjrs.gov
   Google Scholar
• Hardy, K. (2018). Comparing theories of radicalisation with countering violent extremism policy. Journal for Deradicalization, 15(2), 76–110.
   Google Scholar
• Harris, K., Gringart, E., & Drake, D. (2015). Understanding the Role of Social Groups in Radicalisation, Conference paper.
   Google Scholar
• Helfstein, S. (2012). Edges of radicalization: Ideas, individuals and networks in violent extremism.
   Google Scholar
• Horgan, J. (2009). Walking away from terrorism: Accounts of disengagement from radical and extremist movements. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Horgan, J. (2011). Remarks at START Symposium, ‘Lessons learned since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001’, Washington DC, 1 Sept. 2011, http://www.c-spanvideo.org/program/TenYearA, accessed 14 February 2019
   Google Scholar
• Horney, K. (2006). An alternative psychology of criminal behavior. Criminology; An interdisciplinary Journal, 44(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2006.00040.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jasko, K., LaFree, G., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2016). Quest for significance and violent extremism: The case of domestic radicalization. Political Psychology, 5(38), 815–831. doi:10.1111/pops.12376
   Google Scholar
• Kalmar, D. A., & Sternberg, R. J. (1988). Theory-knitting: An integrative approach to theory development. Philosophical Psychology, 1(2), 153–170. https://doi.org/10.1080/09515088808572934
   Google Scholar
• Kammrath, L. K., & Scholer, A. A. (2013). The cognitive-affective processing system: How if … then … profiles of behavior variation reveal the underlying functions of a person’s characteristic actions. In I. B. Wiener (Ed.), Handbook of psychology: Vol. 5. John Wiley & Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Kanner, A. D., Coyne, J. C., Schaefer, C., & Lazarus, R. S. (1981). Comparison of two modes of stress measurement: Daily hassles and uplifts versus major life events. Journal of behavioral medicine, 4(1), 1–39.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Khalil, J. (2017). The three pathway (3P) model of violent extremism: A framework To guide policymakers to the right questions about their preventive countermeasures. The RUSI Journal, 162(4), 40–48. https://doi.org/10.1080/03071847.2017.1365463
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khalil, J., Horgan, J., & Zeuthen, M. (2019). The attitudes-behaviors corrective (ABC) model of violent extremism. Terrorism and Political Violence, 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2019.1699793
   Google Scholar
• King, M., & Taylor, D. M. (2011). The radicalization of homegrown jihadists: A review of theoretical models and social psychological evidence. Terrorism and Political Violence, 23(4), 602–622. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2011.587064
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koehler, D. (2017). Een typologie van ‘deradicaliserings’ programma’s. In L. Colaert (Ed.), ‘Deradicalisering’. Wetenschappelijke inzichten voor een Vlaams beleid (pp. 65–83). Vlaams Vredesinstituut.
   Google Scholar
• Kruglanski, A. W., Bélanger, J. J., Gelfand, M., Gunaratna, R., Hettiarachchi, M., Reinares, F., Orehek, E., Sasota, J., & Sharvit, K. (2013). Terrorism—A (Self) love story redirecting the significance quest can end violence. American Psychologist, 68(7), 559–575.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kruglanski, A. W., Gelfand, M. J., Bélanger, J. J., Hetiarachchi, M., & Gunaratna, R. (2015). Significance quest theory as the driver of radicalization towards terrorism. In J. Jerard & S. M. Nasir (Eds.), Resilience and resolve: Community engagement to community resilience (pp. 17–30). Imperial College Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kruglanski, A. W., Gelfand, M. J., Bélanger, J. J., Sheveland, A., Hetiarachchi, M., & Gunaratna, R. (2014). The psychology of radicalization and deradicalization: How significance quest impacts violent extremism. Political Psychology, 35, 69–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12163
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kühle, L., & Lindekilde, L. (2010). Radicalization among Young Muslims in Aarhus. Aarhus: The Centre for Studies in Islamism and Radicalisation & Department of Political Science, Aarhus University.
   Google Scholar
• Lorenzo-Penalva, J. (2018). Situational Understanding on Violent Radicalization that Results in Terrorism. Two Graphic Models that Provide Clarity on the Topic, Grupo de Estudios en Seguridad Internacional, accessed on 2 Febuary 2019 from file:///C:/Users/ldpeleci/Downloads/Situational_Understanding_on_Violent_Rad.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Mares, M. (2015). Strategies of Islamist extremism in Europe. Interdisciplinary Political and Cultural Journal, 17(1), 109–118. https://doi.org/10.1515/ipcj-2015-0008
   Google Scholar
• Mayer, J. (2005). A tale of two visions: Can a new view of personality help integrate psychology? American Psychologist, 60(4), 294–307. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.60.4.294
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCauley, C., & Moskalenko, S. (2008). Mechanisms of political radicalization: Pathways toward terrorism. Terrorism and Political Violence, 20(3), 415–433. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550802073367
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCauley, C. R., & Moskalenko, S. (2017). Understanding political radicalization: The two-pyramids model. American Psychologist, 72(3), 205–216. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000062
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McPhail, B. A. (2016). Feminist framework plus: Knitting feminist theories of rape etiology into a comprehensive model. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 17(3), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838015584367
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mischel, W., & Shoda, Y. (1995). A cognitive-affective system theory of personality: Reconceptualizing situations, dispositions, dynamics, and invariance in personality structure. Psychological Review, 102(2), 246–268. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.102.2.246
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moghaddam, F. (2005). The staircase to terrorism: A psychological exploration. American Psychologist, 60(2), 161–169. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.60.2.161
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mølmen, G. N., & Ravndal, J. A. (2021). Mechanisms of online radiclisation: How the internet affects the radicalisation of extreme-right lone actor terrorists. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, 1–25. doi:10.1080/19434472.2021.1993302
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neo, L. S. (2016). An internet-mediated pathway for online radicalisation: RECRO. In M. Khader, L. S. Neo, G. Ong, E. T. Mingyi, & J. Chin (Eds.), Combating violent extremism and radicalization in the digital Era (pp. 197–224).
   Google Scholar
• Neumann, P., & Rogers, M. B. (2007). Recruitment and mobilisation for the Islamist militant movement in Europe. European Commission.
   Google Scholar
• Neumann, P. R. (2013). The trouble with radicalization. International Affairs, 89(4), 873–893. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2346.12049
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ozer, S., & Bertelsen, P. (2018). Capturing violent radicalization: Developing and validating scales measuring central aspects of radicalization. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 59(6), 653–660. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12484
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pauwels, L., Brion, F., Schils, N., Laffineur, J., Verhage, A., De Ruyver, B., & Easton, M. (2014). Explaining and understanding the role of exposure to new social media on violent extremism: An integrative quantitative and qualitative approach. Academia Press.
   Google Scholar
• Pfundmair, M., Aßmann, E., Kiver, B., Penzkofer, M., Scheuermeyer, A., Sust, L., & Schmidt, H. (2019). Pathways toward Jihadism in Western Europe: An empirical exploration of a comprehensive model of terrorist radicalization. Terrorism and Political Violence, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2019.1663828
   Google Scholar
• Precht, T. (2007). Home Grown Terrorism and Islamist Radicalisation in Europe: From Conversion to Terrorism. www.justitsministeriet.dk
   Google Scholar
• RAN. (2016). Radicalisation Research – Gap Analysis, December 2016, 1-25.
   Google Scholar
• Sageman, M. (2004). Understanding terror networks. https://doi.org/10.9783/9780812206791
   Google Scholar
• Sageman, M. (2008). A strategy for fighting Islamist terrorists. The Annals of the American Academy for Political and Science Review, 618(1), 223–231. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716208317051
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sawyer, J. P., & Hienz, J. (2017). What makes them do it? Individual-level indicators of extremist outcomes. In G. LaFree & J. D. Freilich (Eds.), The handbook of the criminology of terrorism. Wiley Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Schils, N., & Pauwels, L. (2016). Political violence and the mediating role of violent extremist propensities. Journal of Strategic Security, 9(2), 72–93. https://doi.org/10.5038/1944-0472.9.2.1491
   Google Scholar
• Schils, N., & Verhage, A. (2017). Understanding how and why young people enter radical or violent extremist groups. International Journal of Conflict and Violence, 11(2), 1–17.
   Google Scholar
• Schmid, A. P. (2013). Radicalization, de-radicalization, counter-radicalization: A conceptual discussion and literature review ICCC research paper. The Hague.
   Google Scholar
• Schumpe, B. M., Bélanger, J. J., Moyano, M., & Nisa, C. (2020). The role of sensation seeking in political violence: An extension of the significance quest theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 18(4), 743–761. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000223
   Google Scholar
• Sedgwick, M. (2010). The concept of radicalization as a source of confusion. Terrorism and Political Violence, 22(4), 479–494. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2010.491009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silber, M. D., & Bhatt, A. (2007). Radicalization in the west: The homegrown threat. New York Police Department.
   Google Scholar
• Sinai, J. (2014). Developing a model of prison radicalisation. In A. Silke (Ed.), Prisons, terrorism and extremism: Critical issues in management, radicalisation and reform (pp. 35–46). Oxon: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Sternberg, J., Grigorenko, E. L., & Kalmar, D. A. (2001). The role of theory in unified psychology. Journal of Theoretical and Psychological Psychology, 21(2), 99–117.
   Google Scholar
• Torok, R. (2015). Institutionalised moral reframing: A research based model on Islamic radicalisation on social media. Paper presented at the 8th Australian Security and Intelligence Conference, Edith Cowan University Joondalup Campus, Perth, Western Australia.
   Google Scholar
• Trip, S., Bora, C. H., Marjan, M., Halmajan, A., & Drugas, M. I. (2019). Psychological mechanisms involved in radicalization and extremism. A rational emotive behavioral conceptualization. Frontiers in Psychology, 10(437), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00437
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Van der Valk, I., & Wagenaar, W. (2010). The extreme right: Entry and exit. Amsterdam.
   Google Scholar
• Vergani, M., Iqbal, M., Ilbahar, E., & Barton, G. (2018). The 3 Ps of radicalisation: Push, pull and personal. A systematic scoping review of the scientific evidence about radicalisation into violent extremism. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 43(10), 1–39. doi:10.1080/1057610X.2018.1505686
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Victoroff, J. (2005). The mind of the terrorist. A review and critique of psychological approaches. Journal of Conflict and Resolution, 49(1), 3–42. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002704272040
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward, T., & Beech, A. R. (2016). The integrated theory of sexual offending–revised: A multifield perspective. In D. P. Boer (Ed.), The Wiley handbook on the theories, assessment, and treatment of sexual offending (pp. 123–137). Wiley-Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Ward, T., & Hudson, S. M. (1998). A model of the relapse process in sexual offenders. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13(6), 700–725.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward, T., & Siegert, J. R. (2002). Toward a comprehensive theory of child sexual abuse: A theory knitting perspective. Psychology Crime and Law Crime and Law, 8(4), 319–351. https://doi.org/10.1080/10683160208401823
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiktorowicz, Q. (2004). Joining the Cause: Al-Muhajiroun and Radical Islam. Department of International Studies, Rhodes College.
   Google Scholar
• Winter, D., & Feixas, G. (2019). Toward a constructivist model of radicalization and deradicalization: A conceptual and methodological proposal. Frontiers in Psychology, 10(412), 1–11.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Winter, D., & Muhanna Matar, A. (2018). Cycles of construing in radicalization and deradicalization: A study of Salafist Muslims. Journal of Constructivist Psychology, 1–40. doi:10.1080/10720537.2018.1536904
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young, H. F., Zwenk, F., & Rooze, M. (2013). A review of the literature on radicalisation; and what it means for TERRA. http://www.terra-net.eu
   Google Scholar