ABSTRACT
Conventional packaging offers protection, containment, communication, and convenience to packaged food. The most commonly used packaging materials are petrochemical-based plastics which generate massive wastes that persist for a long time in the environment after their use. Bio-based materials are the best option to replace this synthetic plastic. This review presents the importance of packaging fish products using polysaccharides, proteins, polyhydroxyalkanoates, polylactic acids, pullulan, and xanthan gums loaded with different nanofillers and bioactive molecules. Bio-based smart materials easily decompose into carbon dioxide, methane, water, and inorganic compounds. Biopolymers can be produced from natural biomass, bio-monomers, and microorganisms. These biopolymers demonstrate excellent physiochemical, thermal, and mechanical properties when mixed or alone as fish packaging materials. Integration of nanofillers and bioactive molecules improves mechanical, gas barrier, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of bio-based materials. Bioactive molecules like anthocyanins, betalains, curcumin, and clove oil are sensitive to pH, temperature, light, and time. Bioactive molecules can be loaded into bio-based packaging materials to monitor the real-time freshness of fish products during storage. It is concluded that bio-based smart materials have the potential for fish packaging, do not harm the environment, and easily interact with nanofillers and bioactive molecules.
Introduction
Globally 179 million tons of fish were produced from captured fisheries and aquaculture in 2018.[Citation1] Fisheries play an important role in food security and create job opportunities for 59.5 million people across the world.[Citation2] With business-as-usual practices in Africa, the fish sector was estimated to create 20.7 million jobs by 2030 with an annual value of 3.3 billion USD.[Citation3] Fish is an excellent source of proteins, omega-3 fatty acids, calcium, phosphorus, iron, zinc, magnesium, vitamin A and iodine.[Citation4] However, fish products are highly perishable and need to be preserved in appropriate packaging for handling, distribution, and export.[Citation5] Plastic is the principal food-packaging material. Most (70%) of plastics wastes is generated from food packaging.[Citation6] Plastics are durable, cheap, strong, a good barrier to moisture, light, and highly processable into different shapes. However, the utilization of synthetic plastics leads to dispute as it resulted in depletion of petroleum reserves, global warming, and environmental pollution.[Citation7] The usage of petrochemical-based packaging materials is a risk to environmental safety and human health. Moreover, synthetic plastics are hardly recycled or have limited recyclability. Even though pyrolysis and hydrothermal processing convert plastic waste into fuel, its application is limited due to the emission of toxic gaseous during high-temperature combustion of plastics.[Citation8] In recent years, enzymatic and microbial biodegradation of synthetic plastics has started but the possibility to apply biological treatment is limited due to the difficulty in adhering and colonizing microbes on the surface of plastics. Generally, recycling, landfilling, and incineration are ineffective for the management of plastic wastes.[Citation9] The prevailing environmental pollution has pushed to explore sustainable packaging.[Citation10] An alternative option to this synthetic plastic is biodegradable polymers. It is a fact that these plastic food-packaging materials are disposable and non-biodegradable. Consequently, large amounts of plastic are accumulating in the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, hence various sectors like fishery, agriculture, hydroelectric power generation, marine transportation, health, and tourism are in danger.[Citation11] With the ever-increasing concern of dumped petrochemical-based packaging wastes in the environment, green and sustainable materials are highly demanded to reduce the harmful effects of plastics on the environment.[Citation12] Contrary to synthetic plastics, bio-based polymers decompose, degrade, return to the soil and decrease the volume of garbage. Bio-based materials are derived from renewable and sustainable biomass.[Citation12] Bio-based materials turn the bioplastics sector from a wasteful linear economy to a circular economy.[Citation9] Biopolymers derived from bio-based materials are categorized into natural, semi-synthetic, and microbial polymers.[Citation13] Polysaccharides, protein, lipids, polylactic acid, polyhydroxyalkanoate, pullulan, and xanthan gum are well-known bio-based materials due to their ability to form three-dimensional polymer networks. Polysaccharides are further categorized as starch, cellulose, lignin, қ-carrageenan, alginate, pectin, and chitosan. Protein is grouped into gelatin, casein, caseinates, whey protein, soy protein isolate, wheat gluten, and corn zein.[Citation14] Polymers produced by microorganisms are further classified as polyhydroxyalkanoate, pullulan, xanthan gum.[Citation13] Polylactic acid is synthesized from lactic acid that is produced by microbes through lactide formation, then condensation polymerization and ring open polymerization.[Citation15] Several studies indicated there is a great possibility of bio-based materials for developing eco-friendly fish packaging alternatives.[Citation16,Citation17] This article aims to review the application of different bio-based polymers embedded with bioactive molecules for fish packaging materials.
Polysaccharides-based biopolymers for fish product packaging
The most widely used polysaccharide biopolymers in fish packaging are cellulose, chitin/chitosan, starch, lignin, pectin, alginate, and қ-Carrageenan.[Citation18] In addition to food packaging, bio-based materials can be applied to the filtration of microbes, military security, and environmental management. Today numerous polysaccharides-based packaging materials have been developed for fish packaging materials (). Polysaccharides are easily modified to improve their physicochemical properties through heat gelatinization, pH changes, cross-linking, and hydrolysis.[19] Gases barrier, mechanical, thermal, and chemical properties of biomaterials are important criteria to select polysaccharides as packaging materials.[Citation20] The water vapor, gas barrier, structural and mechanical properties of biopolymers can be improved by adding bioactive, nanofillers, cross-linkers, or plasticizers.[Citation21] Polysaccharide-based packaging material has several advantages as compared to other biopolymers. It easily forms covalent or non-covalent interactions networks with other polymers. They are compatible with additives, which improves the functionality of polysaccharide-based film.[Citation22]
Table 1. Polysaccharides-based biopolymers for fish product packaging
Starch-based biopolymer is a widely accepted packaging film due to its availability in wide agricultural sources, ease of extraction, does not affect the sensory properties of food and can be edible without causing health risks to a human.[Citation10] Bio-based materials extruded from starch conserves frozen pack fish fillets for 360 days better as compared to low-density polyethylene packaging.[Citation40] The application of cellulose alone as packaging materials is challenging due to its hydrophilic and crystalline nature. However, the derivatives of cellulose like carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, or methylcellulose hydroxypropyl all have good film-making properties.[Citation41] Packaging films made of CMC- tea waste and furcellaran inhibit the growth of microorganisms and accumulation of biogenic amine, hence extending the shelf-life of salmon fillets.[Citation42] Cellulose has intelligent properties, i.e can visually indicate the condition of packaged food when loaded with other bioactive molecules. Cellulose when embedded with cyanidin-3-glucoside can act as intelligent packaging that can indicate the freshness of tilapia fillets stored at 4°C and 25°C.[Citation43] Chitosan and other polymers increase the shelf life of fish and its products under chilling conditions. Accordingly, the film made from chitosan-alginate has increased the shelf life of catfish by 15 days during refrigeration.[Citation44] The chitosan and chitosan-alginate coatings are recommended for refrigerated storage of catfish fillets. Similarly, chitosan when combined with the Lactoperoxidase system increases the shelf life of fish burgers by 5 days[Citation45] Қ- Carrageenan, alginate, and agar are widely used to develop coatings and films due to their gel-forming abilities.[Citation46] Oregano essential oil (0.4%) added into pectin increases the shelf-life of yellow croaker from 20 to 27 days.[Citation47]
Protein-based biopolymers for fish product packaging
Protein-based polymers are helpful because they possess valuable characteristics for the production of food packaging materials. Proteins have been intensively studied as bio-based packaging materials due to their film-forming ability, UV-barrier properties, mechanical properties, transparency, and barrier properties against oxygen and carbon dioxide diffusion.[Citation22] Gelatin, collagen, fish proteins, corn zein, wheat gluten, whey, and soy protein are widely accepted for film formation due to their nature to form intermolecular bonds.[Citation48] Different proteins and other biopolymers-based fish packaging materials incorporated with different bioactive molecules are presented in .
Table 2. Proteins-based biopolymers for fish product packaging
Gelatin is one of the first biopolymer materials proposed to carry bioactive compounds.[Citation18] The fillets of common carp when coated with gelatin have improved the qualitative and sensory characteristics of fillets as compared to polyethylene plastics during freeze storage.[Citation61] Gelatin when combined with other biopolymers has some synergistic effects to control some foodborne bacterial pathogens. Gelatin-chitosan films enriched with rosemary essential oils have a great potential for controlling Salmonella enteric, Campylobacter jejuni, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli.[Citation62] Soy protein isolates incorporated with nanoparticles (1% CuO and TiO2) decrease water vapor permeability of films, thus, can be applied as an active packaging system for different foodstuffs.[Citation63] Coating of packaging materials with whey protein isolates exhibits high oxygen barrier properties and delayed peroxide formation of frozen shrimp fried rice during six months of frozen storage.[Citation64]The addition of small amounts of chitosan in whey protein isolate creates a stronger network structure through complex coacervation, higher tensile strength, and lower water vapor permeability rate as compared to mono-component chitosan and whey protein isolate.[Citation65] Due to its hydrophobic nature, Zein protein has low water vapor permeability and solubility.[Citation14]
Polylactic acid and polyhydroxyalkanoates-based biopolymers for fish product packaging
Polylactic acid (PLA) is synthesized from lactic acid monomers that can be widely used for fish packaging during chilling storage.[Citation66] Polylactic acid, polyhydroxyalkanoates, pullulan, and xanthan gum are the most widely used microbial polymers for fish packaging (). The properties that make PHAs ideal for food packaging materials are stability in the air, nontoxicity, hydrophobicity, and pure enantiomer.[Citation67]
Table 3. The use of polylactic acids and polyhydroxyalkanoates-based biopolymers for fish product packaging
Integration of nanofillers into biopolymers
Nanofillers are nano-sized materials that maintain the microbiological safety of food, improve the mechanical, thermal, oxygen, and moisture barrier properties of bio-based packaging of meat, fruits, and seafood in active packaging.[Citation78] Montmorillonite, nanofibers, nanowhiskers, silver, copper, zinc oxide, and Titanium dioxide are widely used nanofiller in active packaging .
Table 4. Nanofillers frequently embedded into polymers
Integration of bioactive molecules into biopolymers
The incorporation of bioactive molecules improves the mechanical, barrier, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties of polymers.[Citation79] Bioactive molecules change their color based on changes in pH, temperature, light, time, and ammonia that making which acts as an indicator in monitoring the spoilage of packaged fish products.[Citation8] Fish spoilage is usually monitored by identifying adenosine triphosphate decomposition, microbial plate counts, total volatile base nitrogen, lipid oxidation, and sensory properties. Monitoring the real-time freshness of fish using chemical, physical, biological, and sensory methods requires professional staff, tedious, complicated, time-consuming, and destructive. The emerging techniques use halochromic (pH-sensitive) bioactive molecules that enable consumers and non-specialists to understand the freshness conditions of fish using their naked eyes.[Citation80]
Some of the pH-sensitive bioactive molecules () are anthocyanins, betalains, carotenoids, carotenoids clove oil, curcumin, turmeric, rosemary, oregano, thyme, green tea, sage, basil, ginger, coriander, garlic, nutmeg, mace, savory and fennel.[Citation81] The most intensively studied bioactive molecules as colorimetric indicators are anthocyanins,[Citation82] curcumin,[Citation83] and carotenoids.[Citation84] Anthocyanins incorporated into biopolymer films have been used as smart indicators to monitor fish spoilage in Grass carp,[Citation85] rainbow trout,[Citation86] Hair-tail, Spade nose shark,[Citation84] Pangasius,[Citation87] and Atlantic mackerel.[Citation88] The other widely used bioactive molecule is betalains. They are secondary nitrogen-containing metabolites of plants, water-soluble is responsible for yellow and orange to red-purple and violet colors. Based on its principal sources this pigment can be categorized into two broad types: betacyanins and betaxanthines.[Citation89] Curcumin is also a known bioactive molecule found in the rhizome of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) that can change its color when food loses its freshness.[Citation90]
Table 5. The beneficial effect of incorporating bioactive compounds into various polymers
Important properties of packaging materials
The most crucial properties of packaging materials are tensile strength, water vapor transmission rate, oxygen transmission rate, elongation at break, the thickness of the film, water-solubility, moisture content, mechanical properties, surface morphology, antioxidant and antibacterial properties.[Citation91] The instruments used to characterize the properties of packaging materials are Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Scanning electron microscopy, Differential Scanning Calorimeter, X-Ray Diffraction.[Citation92] The embedding of nanofillers, bioactive molecules, and essential oils into biopolymer improves the nature of packaging materials ().
Table 6. Essential properties of packaging improved due to immobilization of nanofillers/bioactive molecules into polymers
Conclusion and future perspective
Valorization of wasted food into useful packaging materials is the top agenda to avert the effect of synthetic plastics on the environment. Polysaccharides like cellulose, starch, chitosan or chitin, lignin, pectin, alginate, and carrageenan can be extracted from natural biomass. Similarly, proteins like gelatin, casein and caseinates, whey proteins, wheat gluten, soy protein isolate, and corn zein are easily isolated from plants and animals’ sources. Polyhydroxyalkanoates, pullulan, and xanthan gum can be produced by microorganisms. All these biopolymers notably demonstrate excellent physicochemical, thermal, and mechanical properties when mixed or alone to be used as packaging materials. Some of the essential properties like morphological, thermal, gas barrier, water vapor permeability, antioxidant, and antibacterial of packaging films can be improved by immobilizing nanofillers or bioactive molecules. As a result, these biodegradable packaging materials can be applied as active, intelligent, or smart based on the types of natural pigment during fish packaging. These natural plant-based pigments are nontoxic and safe have antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, enhance shelf life, and enable monitoring of the freshness conditions of fish under storage conditions. Future research has to focus on the use of nanotechnology and smart sensors which allow communication information about the product to the consumers.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
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