Decolonizing the Mind Through Song

Abstract

For post-colonial African musicians, decolonization became an imperative. Singing in one’s native language was not creative expression alone, but also a reclamation of indigenous culture and identity. In Decolonising the Mind, Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o makes a case for African literature to be written in African languages. He also points out that singers and musicians have resisted mental colonization by retaining indigenous musical practices while promoting innovation: ‘These singers pushed the languages to new limits, renewing and reinvigorating them by coining new words and new expressions, and in generally expanding their capacity to incorporate new happenings in Africa and the world’ (1986:23). This article explores emphasis on African languages by African musicians as a form of agenda setting in communication as theorized by Scheufele (2000), focusing on the performance practices of ‘Mama Africa’ Miriam Makeba (1932-2008) and more recent artists influenced by Makeba. By making introductions to her songs and explaining the Xhosa culture in the context of Apartheid, Makeba primes her audience to hear the lyrics she sings as formed from intelligible language instead of alliterative nonsense. For many African singers since, singing in one’s native language (and other African languages) has become an intentional act of decolonisation and a recognizable signifier of pan-African identity for African audiences. This article studies performance choices, including singing in Xhosa and Zulu, and their significant impact on future musicians, the robustness of African languages and cultural identity formation.

Notes

1 There are many male artists that have also championed singing in native languages on an international stage, like Youssou N’Dour, who sings in Wolof. However, we chose to focus on female artists.

2 Adapted from Makeba’s own translation in The World of African Song (1971) along with Fischer’s Xhosa–English Dictionary and a translation on the ‘penguinpowered piano’ blog (2018).

3 Although Makeba herself identifies as isiXhosa (based on her father’s lineage), she uses the term isangoma (the isiZulu word for traditional healer) in her autobiography to refer to her mother, who heeded the call to become a healer in later life. This may be because her mother is Swazi, not Xhosa, but also because of the more commonly known term.

4 A video of the ‘tok tokkie’ is available here: https://bit.ly/2FnQ6nK

5 A musical analysis that shows the juxtaposition of the traditional melody of ‘Qongqothwane’ against a Calypso-style bassline may be viewed at: https://bit.ly/2Y4WLe5

6 Dutch TV studios, September 1979: https://youtu.be/2Mwh9z58iAU.

7 Zaire 1974: http://bit.ly/2CH27Tr

8 From a video of a full performance at the 2017 Reggae on the River Festival in Garberville, CA. The prompt for the audience to sing in Ibibio is at 11:10: https://bit.ly/2Ya9kEH