![Sample our Politics & International Relations journals, sign in here to start your FREE access for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/5947/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Politics-International-Relations.jpg"})
ABSTRACT
This article examines the complex marginalisation and persecution faced by sexual minorities in the Democratic Republic of Congo and forced displacement into Uganda. It demonstrates the need to create space for the voices of sexual minorities within transitional justice, and to attend to the wider systems of violence occurring through conflict and in its aftermath, as they articulate how everyday sexuality-based violence intersects with wider political violence. This article thus calls for a more transformative gendered approach to transitional justice that goes beyond the legal to address deeply ingrained gendered hierarchies of exclusion and stigmatisation of non-heteronormative sexualities.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful for the valuable and constructive comments of the reviewers, with special thanks to Erin Baines for her advice.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Note on contributor
Katie McQuaid is an anthropologist working on gender, violence, intergenerationality, climate change and human rights in urban Africa through an intersection of ethnographic and creative methodologies.
Notes
1 Her name and some details of her story have been altered to protect her identity.
2 A. Björkdahl and J. Manngergren Selimovic, ‘Gendering Agency in Transitional Justice’, Security Dialogue 46, no. 2 (2015): 165–82, 166.
3 I deploy the term ‘sexual minority’ here to denote an individual with a gender identity or sexual orientation that does not conform to the heteronormativities of this region, ensuring that I do not artificially impose an identity or label upon any individual.
4 F. Ní Aoláin, ‘Women, Security, and the Patriarchy of Internationalized Transitional Justice’, Human Rights Quarterly 31, no. 4 (2009): 1055–85, 1066.
5 In a continental context in which same-sex sexual activity was historically sanctioned in various forms and guises (See: M. Epprecht, Hungochani: The History of a Dissident Sexuality in Southern Africa (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 2004); R. Morgan and S. Wierenga, eds, Tommy Boys, Lesbian Men and Ancestral Wives: Female Same Sex Practices in Africa (Johannesburg: Jacana, 2005); S. O’Murray and W. Roscoe, eds, Boy Wives and Female Husbands: Studies in African Homosexualities (New York: Palgrave, 1998)), pernicious contemporary discrimination and violence in contexts such as the DRC, and even more so Uganda, cannot be understood without recourse to the politicisation of sexuality and sexual activity as they are placed at the core of nationalising projects, and in which homosexuality is denounced as an import from the West. See: J. Sadgrove, R. Vanderbeck, J. Andersson, G. Valentine, and K. Ward, ‘Morality Plays and Money Matters: Towards a Situated Understanding of the Politics of Homosexuality in Uganda’, The Journal of Modern African Studies 50, no. 1 (2012): 103–29; R. Rao, ‘Re-membering Mwanga: Same-sex Intimacy, Memory and Belonging in Postcolonial Uganda’, Journal of Eastern African Studies 9, no. 1 (2015): 1–19.
6 Amnesty International, Rule by Law: Discriminatory Legislation and Legitimized Abuses in Uganda (London: Amnesty International, 2014), 44. https://www.amnesty.ca/sites/amnesty/files/p4461_uganda_report_web.pdf (accessed 23 April 2016).
7 W. Lambourne and V. Rodriguez Carreon, ‘Engendering Transitional Justice: A Transformative Approach to Building Peace and Attaining Human Rights for Women’, Human Rights Review (Published online 15 September 2015).
8 A. Dal Secco, ‘Truth and Reconciliation Commissions and Gender Justice’, in Gendered Peace. Women’s Struggles for Post-war Justice and Reconciliation, ed. D. Pankhurst (New York: Routledge, 2008), 67. See also: E. Porter, ‘Gender-Inclusivity in Transitional Justice Strategies: Women in Timor-Leste’, in Gender in Transitional Justice, ed. S. Bukley-Zistel and R. Stanley (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012).
9 F. Ní Aoláin, and C. Turner, ‘Gender, Truth and Transition’, UCLA Women’s Law Journal 16 (2007): 229–79; F. Ní Aoláin, ‘Women, Security, and the Patriarchy of Internationalized Transitional Justice’, 1056; C. Bell, C. Campbell, and F. Ní Aoláin, ‘Justice Discourses in Transition’, Social and Legal Studies 13 (2004): 305; K. Franke, ‘Gendered Subjects of Transitional Justice’, Columbia Journal of Gender and Law 15, no. 3 (2006): 813–28.
10 K. Grewal, ‘Rape in Conflict, Rape in Peace: Questioning the Revolutionary Potential of International Criminal Justice for Women’s Human Rights’, Australian Women’s Feminist Law Journal 33 (2010): 57–79; N. Henry, ‘Witness to Rape: The Limits and Potential of International War Crimes Trials for Victims of Wartime Sexual Violence’, International Journal of Transitional Justice 3 (2009): 114–34; P. Scully, ‘Should We Give Up On the State? Feminist Theory, African Gender History and Transitional Justice’, African Journal on Conflict Resolution 9 (2009): 29–43. This includes the multiple ‘social services justice’ needs of women, see F. Ní Aoláin et al. ‘On the Frontlines: Gender, War, and the Post-conflict Process (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 264.
11 H. Myrttinen, J. Naujoks, and J. El-Bushra, Re-thinking Gender in Peacebuilding (London: International Alert, 2014), 5.
12 Ní Aoláin and Turner, ‘Gender, Truth and Transition’, 245.
13 For an in-depth account of violence intersecting across ethno-national, sexuality and gender markers, see Alex’s stories in K. McQuaid, ‘Violent Continuities: Telling Stories of One Sexual Minority Life in the African Great Lakes Region,’ Identities: Global Studies in Culture and Power 21, no. 5 (2014): 570–85.
14 In the field of transitional justice see: K. Fobear, ‘Queering Truth Commissions’, Journal of Human Rights Practice 6, no. 1 (2014): 51–68; K. Muddell, ‘Sexual Minorities Study: LGBT Issues and Transitional Justice’, Paper presented at the Open Society Institute Forum: Gender and Transitional Justice (New York City: International Center for Transitional Justice, 7 February 2007); V. Nesiah, Truth Commissions and Gender: Principles, Policies and Procedures (New York: International Center for Transitional Justice, 2006); and in the field of humanitarianism see: J. Rumbach and K. Knight, ‘Sexual and Gender Minorities in Humanitarian Emergencies’, in Issues of Gender and Sexual Orientation in Humanitarian Emergencies: Risks and Risk Reduction, ed. L. Roeder (Switzerland: Spring International Publishing: Humanitarian Solutions in the 21st Century, 2014); C. Dolan, ‘Letting Go of the Gender Binary: Charting New Pathways for Humanitarian Interventions on Gender-based Violence’, International Review of the Red Cross 96, no. 894 (2014): 485–501; Human Rights First, Persistent Needs and Gaps: The Protection of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender and Intersex (LGBTI) Refugees: An Overview of UNHCR’s Response to LGBTI Refugees and Recommendations to Enhance Protection (30 September 2010). http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/wp-content/uploads/pdf/Persistent-Needs_LGBTI_Refugees_FINAL.pdf (accessed 23 April 2016).
15 S. Buckley-Zistel and M. Zolkos, ‘Introduction: Gender in Transitional Justice’, in Gender and Transitional Justice, ed. S. Buckley-Zistel and R. Stanley (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012); S. Meintjes, A. Pillay, and M. Turshen, eds, The Aftermath: Women in Postconflict Societies (London and New York: Zed Books, 2001); L. Sjoberg and C. Gentry, Mothers, Monsters, Whores: Women’s Violence in Global Politics (London: Zed Books, 2008).
16 Ní Aoláin et al. ‘On the Frontlines’, 69.
17 S. Tamale, ‘Paradoxes of Sex Work and Sexuality in Modern-day Uganda’, in African Sexualities: A Reader, ed. S. Tamale (Cape Town: Pambazuka Press, 2011), 147.
18 L. Shepherd, ‘Introduction: Rethinking Gender, Agency and Political Violence’, in Gender, Agency and Political Violence, ed. L. Åhäll and L. J. Shepherd (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 5.
19 P. Kirby, ‘How Is Rape A Weapon of War?: Feminist International Relations, Modes of Critical Explanation and the Study of Wartime Sexual Violence’, European Journal of International Relations (2012), 4; K. Hutchings, ‘Towards a Feminist International Ethics’, Review of International Studies 26, no. 5 (2000): 111–30; J. Tickner, ‘You Just Don’t Understand: Troubled Engagements Between Feminists and IR Theorists’, International Studies Quarterly 41, no. 4 (1997): 611–32; M. Zalewski, ‘Well, What is the Feminist Perspective on Bosnia?’, International Affairs 71, no. 2 (1995): 339–56.
20 J. Elshtain, Women and War (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1995); C. Enloe, ‘Margins, Silences and Bottom Rungs: How to Overcome the Underestimation of Power in the Study of International Relations’, in International Theory: Positivism and Beyond, ed. S. Smith, K. Booth, and M. Zalewski (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); C. Harrington, Politicization of Sexual Violence: From Abolitionism to Peacekeeping (London: Ashgate, 2010); Kirby, ‘How is Rape a Weapon of War’; P. Owens, ‘Distinctions, Distinctions: “Public” and “Private” Force?’ International Affairs 84, no. 5 (2008): 977–90.
21 P. Bourdieu, ‘Gender and Symbolic Violence’, in Violence in War and Peace: An Anthology, ed. N. Scheper-Hughes and P. Bourgois (Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing, 2004), 339.
22 J. Butler, Frames of War: When is Life Grievable? (London: Verso, 2009), 2.
23 McQuaid, ‘Violent Continuities’.
24 See T. Iosifides and D. Sporton, ‘Editorial: Biographical Methods in Migration Research’, Migration Letters 6, no. 2 (2009): 101–8.
25 D. Zeitlyn, ‘Life-history Writing and the Anthropological Silhouette’, Social Anthropology 16, no. 2 (2008): 154–71, 159.
26 J. Comaroff and J. Comaroff, Ethnography and the Historical Imagination (Oxford: Westview, 1992), 25.
27 McQuaid, ‘Violent Continuities’.
28 See F. Warner, ‘The Testimonio Method in Refugee Research: Practicing Advocacy and Feminism in an Ethnographic Encounter with Q’eqchi’ and K’iche’ Women’, in Power, Ethics, and Human Rights: Anthropological Studies of Refugee Research and Action, ed. R. Krulfeld and J. MacDonald (Oxford: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 1998): 78–9, 87.
29 T. Turner, The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality (London: Zed Books, 2007), 116.
30 International Rescue Committee and Burnet Institute, Measuring Mortality in the Democratic Republic of Congo (2008); see IRC website, http://www.theirc.org/sites/default/files/resource-file/IRC_DRCMortalityFacts.pdf (accessed 1 September 2010).
31 L. Roberts, Mortality in Eastern DRC. Results from Five Mortality Surveys by the IRC (Bukavu: DRC, 2000); V. Brittain, ‘Calvary of the Women of Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)’, Review of African Political Economy 29, no. 93/94 (State Failure in the Congo: Perceptions & Realities (Le Congo entre Crise et Regeneration)) (2002): 595–601.
32 G. Prunier, From Genocide to Continental War: The ‘Congolese’ Conflict and the Crisis of Contemporary Africa (London: Hurst & Company, 2009); F. Reyntjens, The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996–2002 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009); K. Emizet, ‘The Massacre of Refugees in Congo: A Case of UN Peacekeeping Failure and International Law’, The Journal of Modern African Studies 38, no. 2 (2000): 163–202; C. Clark-Kazak, Recounting Migration: Political Narratives of Congolese Young People in Uganda (McGill: Queen’s University Press, 2011); J. Pottier, Re-Imagining Rwanda: Conflict, Survival and Disinformation in the Late Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
33 M. Eriksson Baaz and M. Stern, The Complexity of Violence: A Critical Analysis of Sexual Violence in the Democratic Republic of Congo (Uppsala, Sweden: Sida & Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, 2010), 7; J. Kelly, T. Betancourt, D. Mukwege, R. Lipton, and M. Vanrooyen, ‘Experiences of Female Survivors of Sexual Violence in Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo: A Mixed-methods Study’, Conflict and Health 5, no. 25 (2011): 1–14, 2; A. Peterman, T. Palermo, and C. Bredenkamp, ‘Estimates and Determinants of Sexual Violence against Women in the Democratic Republic of Congo’, American Journal of Public Health 101, no. 6 (2011): 1060–7; K. Johnson, J. Scott, B. Rughita, M. Kisielewski, J. Asher, R. Ong, and L. Lawry, ‘Association of Sexual Violence and Human Rights Violations with Physical and Mental Health in Territories of the Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo’, Journal of the American Medical Association 204 (2010): 553–62, 558.
34 Franke, ‘Gendered Subjects of Transitional Justice’; Ní Aoláin et al., ‘On the Frontlines’; D. Sankey, ‘Gendered Experiences of Subsistence Harms: A Possible Contribution to Feminist Discourse on Gendered Harm?’, Social and Legal Studies 24, no. 1 (2015): 25–45; M. Urban Walker, ‘Gender and Violence in Focus: A Background for Gender Justice in Reparations’, in Gender and Reparations: Unsettling Sexual Hierarchies while Redressing Human Rights Violations, ed. R. Rubio-Marin (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009).
35 Ní Aoláin, ‘Women, Security, and the Patriarchy of Internationalized Transitional Justice’, 1059.
36 Eriksson Baaz and Stern, ‘The Complexity of Violence’, 44; D. Lewis, ‘Unrecognized Victims: Sexual Violence Against Men in Conflict Settings Under International Law’, Wisconsin International Law Journal 27 (2009): 1–49, 9; S. Sivakumaran, ‘Lost in Translation: UN Responses to Sexual Violence Against Men and Boys in Situations of Armed Conflict’, International Review of the Red Cross 92 (2010): 259–77, 255.
37 Grewal, ‘Rape in Conflict, Rape in Peace’.
38 Lambourne and Rodriguez Carreon, ‘Engendering Transitional Justice’.
39 C. Blacklock and A. Crosby, ‘The Sounds of Silence: Feminist Research across Time in Guatemala’, in Sites of Violence: Gender and Conflict Zones, ed. W. Giles and J. Hyndman (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 53; G. Kibreab, ‘Displacement, Host Government’s Policies, and Constraints of Sustainable Livelihoods’, International Social Science Journal 55 (2003): 57–67.
40 Kirby, ‘How is Rape a Weapon of War?’, 4.
41 Lambourne and Rodriguez Carreon, ‘Engendering Transitional Justice’.
42 UNHCR Uganda, http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e483c06.html (accessed January 2013).
43 C. Clark-Kazak, Recounting Migration: Political Narratives of Congolese Young People in Uganda (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2011): 31–2.
44 L. Hovil, ‘Self-Settled Refugees in Uganda: An Alternative Approach to Displacement?’, Journal of Refugee Studies 20, no. 4 (2007): 599–620.
45 Ibid., 601.
46 See K. McQuaid, ‘“We Raise Up the Voice of the Voiceless”: Voice, Rights and Resistance amongst Congolese Human Rights Defenders in Uganda’, Refuge (Special Issue on Refugee Voices) 32, no. 1 (2016): 50–9, 54.
47 In 2010, Human Rights First (see note 14, 6–12) reported significant protection gaps in UNHCR’s protection of sexual minority refugees and asylum seekers, including inadequate recognition of LGBTI (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex) persons as a category of persons with particular needs, an absence of practical guidance to ensure LGBTI refugees and asylum seekers are protected in practice, and inconsistences in current protection guidance with regard to sexual orientation and gender identity. However, whilst there is demonstrably work needed to translate policy into practice amongst country-level staff in the humanitarian field of Uganda, the UNHCR has made active progress on its ‘Age, Gender and Diversity’ (AGD) policy which aims to ‘promote progress toward a situation of full equality’, inclusive of ‘different values, attitudes, cultural perspective, beliefs, ethnic background, nationality, sexual orientation, gender identity, ability, health, social status, skill and other specific characteristics’ (UNHCR, Age, Gender and Diversity Policy: Working with People and Communities for Equality and Protection (2011), para. 5. http://www.unhcr.org/4e7757449.html (accessed 25 May 2016). The UNHCR draws on the Yogyakarta Principles, which provide a set of guiding principles on the application of human rights law in relation to sexual orientation and gender identity (2006). http://www.yogyakartaprinciples.org/principles_en.pdf (accessed 13 May 2016). Dolan (‘Letting Go of the Gender Binary’, 489) cites ‘a growing recognition of the rights of LGBTI persons’ visible ‘in increasing efforts by the UNHCR to understand and in some situations respond to the specific needs of LGBTI asylum seekers and refugees’. The ‘UNHCR should be commended’ on its: Guidelines on International Protection No. 9: Claims to Refugee Status based on Sexual Orientation and/or Gender Identity within the Context of Article 1A(2) of the 1951 Convention and/or its 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, HCR/GIP/12/09 (23 October 2012). http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/home/opendocPDFViewer.html?docid=509136ca9&query=lgbt%20policy (accessed 14 May 2016); Need to Know Guidance Note 2 on ‘Working with Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender and Intersex Persons in Forced Displacement’ (2011). http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/4e6073972.pdf (accessed 14 May 2016); and on the availability of an extensive collection of LGBTI-related policy, legal and other documentation online at: www.refworld.org/sogi.html (accessed 14 May 2016).
48 ‘Survival sex’ refers to the practice of engaging in sex work to attain basic rights, such as food, shelter or health care. For the Ugandan humanitarians I observed using this terminology, this could include trading sex directly for food, shelter or medication, or trading sex for money to obtain such necessities for survival.
49 Ugandan shillings, which had a value of around $4 at the time of telling.
50 Tamale, ‘Paradoxes of Sex Work’, 146.
51 Ibid., 147.
52 Amnesty International, ‘Rule by Law’, 44, 46.
53 Ibid.
54 ‘Uganda Report of Violations Based on Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation’ (July 2015). https://www.outrightinternational.org/sites/default/files/15_02_22_lgbt_violations_report_2015_final.pdf (accessed 13 May 2016).
55 Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender.
56 Human Rights First, ‘Persistent Needs and Gaps’, 405. See respectively: http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/topics/lgbt (accessed 25 May 2016); http://www.hrw.org/lgbt (accessed 25 May 2016); https://www.amnesty.org.uk/issues/LGBTI-rights (accessed 25 May 2016); see also: M. O’Flaherty and J. Fisher, ‘Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and International Human Rights Law: Contextualising the Yogyakarta Principles’, Human Rights Law Review 8, no. 2 (2008): 208–14.
57 I use the plural ‘violences’ to move beyond eventcentric approaches to highlight the multiple forms of violence that occur through time and space, and the multiple and diverse ways in which they are experienced, understood, articulated, and perpetrated by those on the ground. In this way it is more difficult to lapse into prioritising any particular experience of violence at the expense of a more nuanced approach to multiple and intersecting violences.
58 R. Chatterji and D. Mehta, Living with Violence: An Anthropology of Events and Everyday Life (Michigan: Routledge, 2007), 1.
59 Ní Aoláin, ‘Women, Security, and the Patriarchy of Internationalized Transitional Justice’, 1076; J. Boesten, Sexual Violence during War and Peace: Gender, Power, and Post-Conflict Justice in Peru (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014); F. Ross, Bearing Witness: Women and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa (London: Pluto Press, 2003).
60 S. Gear, ‘Wishing Us Away: Challenges Facing Ex-combatants in the “New” South Africa’, Violence and Transition Series 8 (2002).
61 B. Hamber, ‘“We Must Be Very Careful How We Emancipate Our Women”: Shifting Masculinities in Post-Apartheid South-Africa’, UK Economic and Social Research Council New Security Challenges Programme, Working Paper (2006).
62 A. Björkdahl, ‘A Gender-just Peace? Exploring the Post-Dayton Peace Process in Bosnia’, Peace and Change 37, no. 2 (2012): 171–337; A. Björkdahl, ‘Deliberating and Localizing Just Peace’, in Rethinking Peacebuilding: The Quest for Just Peace in the Middle East and the Western Balkans, ed. K. Aggestam and A. Björkdahl (Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 2013); C. Cockburn, ‘Against the Odds: Sustaining Feminist Momentum in Post-war Bosnia-Herzegovina’, Women’s Studies International Forum 37, no. 1 (2013): 26–35.
63 Franke, ‘Gendered Subjects of Transitional Justice’; Sankey, ‘Gendered Experiences of Subsistence Harms’, 26; Ní Aoláin and Turner, ‘Gender, Truth and Transition’, 229; Ní Aoláin et al., ‘On the Frontlines’.
64 Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), Transitional Justice and Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (New York and Geneva: OHCHR, 2014), 17.
65 Ibid.
66 S. Harris Rimmer, ‘Women Cut in Half: Refugee Women and the Commission for Reception, Truth Seeking and Reconciliation in Timor-Leste’, Refugee Survey Quarterly 29, no. 2 (2010): 85–103.
67 Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in Timor-Leste (CAVR), Chega! (2005), paras 495–8. http://www.cavr-timorleste.org/en/chegaReport.htm (accessed 2 January 2016).
68 L. Hovil, The Nexus between Displacement and Transitional Justice: A Gender-Justice Dimension (New York: International Center for Transitional Justice, 2013). https://www.ictj.org/publication/nexus-between-displacement-and-transitional-justice-gender-justice-dimension (accessed 22 January 2016).
69 C. Bell and C. O’ Rourke, ‘Does Feminism Need a Theory of Transitional Justice? An Introductory Essay’, International Journal of Transitional Justice 1, no. 1 (2007): 23–44; V. Nesiah, ‘Missionary Zeal for a Secular Mission: Bringing Gender to Transitional Justice and Redemption to Feminism’, in Feminist Perspectives on Contemporary International Law: Between Resistance and Compliance? ed. S. Kouvo and Z. Pearson (Oxford: Hart, 2011), 143; Ní Aoláin et al., ‘On the Frontlines’; Sankey, ‘Gendered Experiences of Subsistence Harms’, 28–9.
70 Sankey, ‘Gendered Experiences of Subsistence Harms’, 28; C. Mibenge, Sex and International Tribunals The Erasure of Gender from the War Narrative (Pennsylvania Studies in Human Rights, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013).
71 Franke, ‘Gendered Subjects of Transitional Justice’, 822–3.
72 Yogyakarta Principles, Principle 23, 27.
73 Yogyakarta Principles, Additional Recommendation G, 32.
74 H. Arendt, Men in Dark Times (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973), 32.
75 E. Baines and B. Stewart, ‘“I Cannot Accept What I Have Not Done”: Storytelling, Gender, and Transitional Justice’, Journal of Human Rights Practice 3, no. 3 (2011): 245–63, 247.
76 E. Porter, ‘Gendered Narratives: Stories and Silences in Transitional Justice’, Human Rights Review (Published online 17 November 2015).
77 Baines and Stewart, ‘Storytelling, Gender, and Transitional Justice’, 260.
78 E. Baines, ‘Gender, Responsibility, and the Grey Zone: Considerations for Transitional Justice’, Journal of Human Rights 10, no. 4 (2011): 477–93, 490.
79 Porter, ‘Gendered Narratives’.
80 S. Cobb, Speaking of Violence: The Politics and Poetics of Narrative Dynamics in Conflict Resolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 12.
81 J. Galtung, ‘Peace by Peaceful Means’, Development and Civilization (1996), 197.
82 C. O’Rourke, ‘The Shifting Signifier of “Community” in Transitional Justice: A Feminist Analysis’, Wisconsin Journal of Law, Gender and Society 23 (2008): 269–91.
83 For example, Cockburn, ‘Against the Odds’; Meintjes et al. ‘The Aftermath’; N. Yuval-Davis, Gender & Nation (London: SAGE, 2008); L. Handrahan, ‘Conflict, Gender, Ethnicity and Post-conflict Reconstruction’, Security Dialogue 35, no. 4 (2004): 429–45.
84 V. Nesiah et al., Truth Commissions and Gender: Principles, Policies, and Procedures (International Centre for Transitional Justice, 2006), 43–4.
85 Ní Aoláin, ‘Women, Security, and the Patriarchy of Internationalized Transitional Justice’, 1069.
86 Björkdahl and Mannergren Selimovic, ‘Gendering Agency in Transitional Justice’, 165.
87 W. Lambourne, ‘Transitional Justice and Peacebuilding after Mass Violence’, International Journal of Transitional Justice 3 (2009): 28–48.
88 Lambourne and Rodriguez Carreon, ‘Engendering Transitional Justice’.
89 J. Chernoff, Hustling Is Not Stealing: Stories of an African Bar Girl (London: The University of Chicago Press, 2003), 31.