Economic and social rights and truth commissions

ABSTRACT

This article asks whether economic and social rights (ESR) violations should be included in the thematic mandate of truth commissions (TCs), and if so, how. Specifically, it analyses whether to investigate large-scale ESR violations would conform to the powers and functions that traditionally TCs have had. This paper argues that TCs can investigate large-scale ESR violations without involving themselves in policy determinations. To support this, it first stresses the content of TC's power to investigate these violations. Second, it demonstrates that determining the content of the large majority of State duties arising from ESR is relatively easy as they are of immediate effect. Lastly, it emphasizes the finding of recent research on ESR adjudication that domestic and international courts and bodies have developed a variety of well-articulated legal techniques to adjudicate ESR violations. Based on a discussion of the various types of State duties arising from ESR, relevant experiences from judicial review on ESR and the Kenyan and East Timorese TCs’ investigations of large-scale ESR violations, this study also sheds light on how TCs whose mandate include large-scale ESR violations can investigate these abuses. This work also identifies capacity and other practical challenges arising from this type of investigation and proposes measures to address them.

KEYWORDS:

• Economic and social rights
• transitional justice
• truth commissions
• investigation
• human rights

Correction Statement

This article has been republished with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.

Acknowledgements

Many thanks to Dr. Jemima García-Godos (University of Oslo) and two anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments on an earlier draft.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes on contributor

Juan Carlos Ochoa-Sánchez has a Ph.D. in International Relations from the University of Geneva, the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies in Geneva, Switzerland. LL.M. from Leiden University in the Netherlands. The research for this article was conducted while being a Professor at the Faculty of Social Sciences, Universidad Jorge Tadeo Lozano in Bogotá, Colombia. E-mail: [email protected]

Notes

1. Louise Arbour, ‘Economic and Social Justice for Societies in Transition’, New York University Journal of International Law and Politics 40, no. 1 (2007); Amanda Cahill-Ripley, ‘Foregrounding Socioeconomic Rights in Transitional Justice: Realising Justice for Violations of Economic and Social Rights’, Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights 32, no. 2 (2014); Lisa J. Laplante, ‘Transitional Justice and Peace Building: Diagnosing and Addressing the Socioeconomic Roots of Violence through a Human Rights Framework’, International Journal of Transitional Justice 2, no. 3 (2008); Rama Mani, Beyond Retribution: Seeking Justice in the Shadows of War (Cambridge: Polity Press; Blackwell Publishers Inc., 2002); Dustin N. Sharp, ‘Introduction: Addressing Economic Violence in Times of Transition’, in Justice and Economic Violence in Transition, ed. Dustin N. Sharp (New York: Springer, 2014); Evelyne Schmid and Aoife Nolan, ‘“Do No Harm”? Exploring the Scope of Economic and Social Rights in Transitional Justice’, International Journal of Transitional Justice 8, no. 3 (2014); UN Secretary-General, Guidance Note of the Secretary-General: United Nations Approach to Transitional Justice, United Nations, 2010; UN Human Rights Council, Resolution on Transitional Justice and Human Rights, 12 October 2009, UN Doc. A/HRC/RES/12/11.

2. Padraig McAuliffe, ‘Rhetoric and Realpolitik: Interrogating the Relationship between Transitional Justice and Socio-Economic Justice’, Finnish Year Book of International Law 23, no. 1 (2014); Pádraig McAuliffe, Transformative Transitional Justice and the Malleability of Post-Conflict States (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2017); Lars Waldorf, ‘Anticipating the Past: Transitional Justice and Socio-Economic Wrongs’, Social & Legal Studies 21, no. 2 (2012).

3. Waldorf, ‘Anticipating the Past’; McAuliffe, ‘Rhetoric and Realpolitik’.

4. See e.g., Pablo De Greiff, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Promotion of Truth, Justice, Reparation and Guarantees of Non-Recurrence, 28 August 2013, UN doc. A/HRC/24/42 (hereinafter ‘De Greiff 2013 Report’), para 52.

5. UN Secretary-General, Guidance Note of the Secretary-General, Section C, para 1.

6. Government of Colombia and the FARC, Final Agreement to End the Armed Conflict and Build a Stable and Lasting Peace, 24 November 2016, Point 5 of the Agreement: Agreement on Victims of the Conflict (hereinafter ‘Final Agreement to End the Colombian Armed Conflict’), 134, http://www.altocomisionadoparalapaz.gov.co/procesos-y-conversaciones/Documentos%20compartidos/24-11-2016NuevoAcuerdoFinal.pdf.

7. Ibid, 134.

8. Juan Carlos Ochoa-Sánchez, ‘Economic and Social Rights and Transitional Justice: A Framework of Analysis’, Journal of Human Rights 18, doi:10.1080/14754835.2019.1609349.

9. See e.g., De Greiff 2013 Report; Eduardo González, ‘Set to Fail? Assessing Tendencies in Truth Commissions Created after Violent Conflict’, in Challenging the Conventional-Can Truth Commissions Strengthen Peace Processes, ed. International Center for Transitional Justice (New York: International Center for Transitional Justice, 2014); Pádraig McAuliffe, ‘Structural Causes of Conflict and the Superficiality of Transition’, in Theorizing Transitional Justice, eds. Nir Eisikovits and Claudio Corradieti (London: Ashgate, 2015); Waldorf, ‘Anticipating the Past’.

10. Schmid and Nolan, ‘“Do No Harm”?’; Cahill-Ripley, ‘Foregrounding Socioeconomic Rights’; Diana Sankey, ‘Towards Recognition of Subsistence Harms: Reassessing Approaches to Socioeconomic Forms of Violence in Transitional Justice’, International Journal of Transitional Justice 8, no. 1 (2014).

11. Example taken from Ochoa-Sánchez, ‘Economic and Social Rights and Transitional Justice’.

12. Malcolm Langford, ‘The Justiciability of Social Rights: From Practice to Theory’, in Social Rights Jurisprudence: Emerging Trends in International and Comparative Law, ed. Malcolm Langford, 1st ed. (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008); Cahill-Ripley, ‘Foregrounding Socioeconomic Rights’; Schmid and Nolan, ‘“Do No Harm”?’.

13. Given the wide scope of this article, it only covers the first type of socio-economic issues.

14. See e.g., Ruben Carranza, ‘Plunder and Pain: Should Transitional Justice Engage with Corruption and Economic Crimes?’, International Journal of Transitional Justice 2, no. 3 (2008); McAuliffe, Transformative Transitional Justice; Zinaida Miller, ‘Effects of Invisibility: In Search of the ‘Economic’ in Transitional Justice’, International Journal of Transitional Justice 2, no. 3 (2008); Ismael Muvingi, ‘Sitting on Powder Kegs: Socioeconomic Rights in Transitional Societies’, International Journal of Transitional Justice 3, no. 2 (2009); Waldorf, ‘Anticipating the Past’.

15. For a detailed analysis of several political considerations and other types of contextual factors that may influence the feasibility of including ESR violations in transitional justice initiatives generally, see McAuliffe, Transformative Transitional Justice.

16. See e.g., Priscilla B. Hayner, Unspeakable Truths: Transitional Justice and the Challenge of Truth Commissions, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2011), 11–2.

17. Ibid., 11–2.

18. See e.g. Onur Bakiner, Truth Commissions: Memory, Power, and Legitimacy (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016), 24; Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Rule-of-Law Tools for Post-Conflict States: Truth Commissions (Geneva: United Nations Publications, 2006).

19. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Rule-of-Law Tools for Post-Conflict States: Truth Commissions; Hayner, Unspeakable Truths, 11–2; Bakiner, Truth Commissions, 24, 60.

20. International Center for Transitional Justice, Truth Seeking: Elements of Creating an Effective Truth Commission (New York: International Center for Transitional Justice, 2013), 23–4; Hayner, Unspeakable Truths, 20.

21. Eric Wiebelhaus-Brahm, Truth Commissions and Transitional Societies: The Impact on Human Rights and Democracy (London; New York: Routledge, 2010), 4.

22. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Rule-of-Law Tools for Post-Conflict States: Truth Commissions, 2, 13; UN Secretary-General, Guidance Note of the Secretary-General, 8, 10.

23. See e.g., Onur Bakiner, ‘Truth Commission Impact: An Assessment of How Commissions Influence Politics and Society’, International Journal of Transitional Justice 8, no. 1 (2014).

24. See e.g. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Rule-of-Law Tools for Post-Conflict States: Truth Commissions.

25. For a summary of the thematic mandate of several truth commissions, see De Greiff 2013 Report, 10–1.

26. See Peru’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission, Final Report (2003) at Introduction, Section I, 23–6, http://www.cverdad.org.pe/ifinal/conclusiones.php.

27. Evelyne Schmid, Taking Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Seriously in International Criminal Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 312.

28. Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights [UN OHCHR], Transitional Justice and Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (New York; Geneva: United Nations, 2014), 17.

29. See e.g. Dustin N. Sharp, ‘Economic Violence in the Practice of African Truth Commissions and Beyond’, in Justice and Economic Violence in Transition, ed. Dustin N. Sharp (New York: Springer, 2014).

30. See e.g. Sharp, ‘Introduction: Addressing Economic Violence’.

31. Cahill-Ripley, ‘Foregrounding Socioeconomic Rights’; Schmid and Nolan, ‘“Do No Harm”?’.

32. UN Secretary-General, Guidance Note of the Secretary-General, Section C, para 1.

33. De Greiff 2013 Report, 3.

34. Ibid., 7.

35. See e.g., De Greiff 2013 Report; Pablo De Greiff Pablo, ‘Articulating the Link between Transitional Justice and Development: Justice and Social Integration’, in Transitional Justice and Development. Making Connections, eds. Pablo De Greiff and R. Duthie, eds. (New York: Social Science Research Council); González, ‘Set to Fail?’.

36. McAuliffe, ‘Rhetoric and Realpolitik’, 277.

37. See e.g. Bakiner, Truth Commissions, 24; Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Rule-of-Law Tools for Post-Conflict States: Truth Commissions.

38. For a similar argument regarding ESR adjudication, see the summary made in Malcolm Langford, ‘Social Rights Adjudication. An Interdisciplinary Perspective’ (PhD thesis, University of Oslo, Faculty of Law, 2014), 26.

39. See e.g. McAuliffe, ‘Rhetoric and Realpolitik’.

40. McAuliffe, ‘Rhetoric and Realpolitik’, 269, 302; Mani, Beyond Retribution; Waldorf, ‘Anticipating the Past’.

41. Waldorf, ‘Anticipating the Past’, 179.

42. Ibid., 179; Mani, Beyond Retribution.

43. See e.g., Waldorf, ‘Anticipating the Past’; McAuliffe, ‘Rhetoric and Realpolitik’.

44. Waldorf, ‘Anticipating the Past’, 179.

45. See e.g., UN General Assembly, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 993 U.N.T.S. 3, 16 December 1966, entry into force on 3 January 1976; UN General Assembly, Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1577 U.N.T.S. 3, 20 November 1989, entry into force on 2 September 1990; UN General Assembly, Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, 2515 U.N.T.S. 3, 13 December 2006, entry into force on 3 May 2008.

46. See e.g., Malcolm Langford, Social Rights Jurisprudence: Emerging Trends in International and Comparative Law (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008).

47. See e.g., UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights [UN Committee on ESCR], General Comment No. 3: The Nature of States Parties’ Obligations (Art. 2, Para. 1, of the Covenant), 14 December1990, para. 15; Maastricht Guidelines on Violations of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights [Maastricht Guidelines], Maastricht, 26 January 1997, http://www.refworld.org/docid/48abd5730.html; Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, Frequently Asked Questions on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Fact Sheet No 33, 2009.

48. Ochoa-Sánchez, ‘Economic and Social Rights and Transitional Justice’; Langford, ‘Social Rights Adjudication’; Schmid and Nolan, ‘ “Do No Harm”?’; Cahill-Ripley, ‘Foregrounding Socioeconomic Rights’; Takhmina Karimova, ‘What Amounts to “A Serious Violation of International Human Rights Law”? An Analysis of Practice and Expert Opinion for the Purpose of the 2013 Arms Trade Treaty’, in Academy Briefings vol. 6, ed. Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights (Geneva: Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights, 2014).

49. Schmid and Nolan, ‘“Do No Harm”?’; Langford, ‘The Justiciability of Social Rights’.

50. See e.g., McAuliffe, Transformative Transitional Justice; Carranza, ‘Plunder and Pain’; Miller, ‘Effects of Invisibility’; Muvingi, ‘Sitting on Powder Kegs’; Waldorf, ‘Anticipating the Past’.

51. See e.g., Karimova, ‘What Amounts to “A Serious Violation of International Human Rights Law”?’, 6, 37; Theo Van Boven, Study Concerning the Right to Restitution, Compensation and Rehabilitation for Victims of Gross Violations of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms: Final Report, 2 July 1993, UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1993/8 (hereinafter ‘Van Boven 1993 Report’), paras. 12, 21, 70.

52. Karimova, ‘What Amounts to “A Serious Violation of International Human Rights Law”?’, 37; Schmid, Taking Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Seriously in International Criminal Law.

53. See e.g., Cahill-Ripley, ‘Foregrounding Socioeconomic Rights’; Schmid and Nolan, ‘“Do No Harm”?’.

54. See also Schmid and Nolan, ‘“Do No Harm”?’.

55. Ochoa-Sánchez, ‘Economic and Social Rights and Transitional Justice’.

56. Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, Rule of Law Tools for Post-Conflict States: Reparations Programmes (Geneva: UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, 2008).

57. See e.g., Langford, ‘Social Rights Adjudication’, chapters 5 and 6.

58. Langford, ‘The Justiciability of Social Rights’.

59. UN OHCHR, Transitional Justice and Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 12.

60. UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No 12: The Right to Adequate Food (art. 11 of the Covenant), 12 May 1999, para. 15.

61. UN OHCHR, Transitional Justice and Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 12.

62. Ochoa-Sánchez, ‘Economic and Social Rights and Transitional Justice’; United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights [UN OHCHR], Protection of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in Conflict, United Nations, Geneva, 2105, 13.

63. For relevant cases of the Inter-American court of Human Rights (IACtHR), see e.g., Ituango Massacres v. Colombia, Judgment of 1 July 2006, Series C No. 148, para.153; Herrera Espinoza et al. v. Ecuador. Judgment of 1 September 2016, Series C No. 316. For analysis of these cases, see Ochoa-Sánchez, ‘Economic and Social Rights and Transitional Justice’. See also UN OHCHR, ‘Protection of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in Conflict’, 13.

64. UN OHCHR, Transitional Justice and Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 12.

65. UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No. 3: The Nature of States Parties’ Obligations (Art. 2, Para. 1, of the Covenant), 14 December1990, para. 10.

66. Ibid., para. 10.

67. For recent studies on minimum core obligations, see John Tasioulas, Minimum Core Obligations: Human Rights in the Here and Now (Washington: World Bank, 2017), https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/29144; Kirsteen Shields, The Minimum Core Obligations of Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights: The Rights to Health and Education (Washington: World Bank, 2017), https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/29145.

68. See e.g., International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 16 December 1966, 993 U.N.T.S. 3 (entered into force on 3 January 1976), art. 2, para. 1; Convention on the Rights of the Child, 20 November 1989, 1577 U.N.T.S. 3 (entered into force on 2 September 1990), art. 4; Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, 13 December 2006, 2515 UNTS 3 (entered into force on 3 May 2008), art. 4, para. 2.

69. See Varun Gauri and Daniel M. Brinks, Courting Social Justice: Judicial Enforcement of Social and Economic Rights in the Developing World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008); Langford, ‘The Justiciability of Social Rights’; Porter Nolan and Malcolm Langford, The Justiciability of Social and Economic Rights: An Updated Appraisal. CHRGJ Working Paper No 15, 2007; Alicia Ely Yamin and Siri Gloppen, Litigating Health Rights: Can Courts Bring More Justice to Health? (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2011); Katharine G. Young, ‘A Typology of Economic and Social Rights Adjudication: Exploring the Catalytic Function of Judicial Review’, International Journal of Constitutional Law 8, no. 3, 385–420 (2010).

70. See e.g., Matthias Klatt, ‘Positive Rights: Who Decides? Judicial Review in Balance’, International Journal of Constitutional Law 13, no. 2, 354–82 (2015); Langford, ‘The Justiciability of Social Rights’; Katharine G. Young, Constituting Economic and Social Rights (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012).

71. Amrei Müller, The Relationship Between Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and International Humanitarian Law: An Analysis of Health Related Issues in Non-International Armed Conflicts (The Hague: Brill, 2013), 144.

72. UN OHCHR, ‘Protection of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in Conflict’, 13.

73. Ibid., 13.

74. Langford, ‘Social Rights Adjudication’, 206–7.

75. This and the following quotation are from Langford, ‘Social Rights Adjudication’, 451.

76. César Rodríguez-Garavito and Diana Rodríguez-Franco, Juicio a La Exclusión: El Impacto De Los Tribunales Sobre Los Derechos Sociales En El Sur Global (Buenos Aires: Siglo 21 Editora Iberoamericana, 2015); Langford, ‘Social Rights Adjudication’, 192–304.

77. Langford, ‘Social Rights Adjudication’, 184.

78. Ibid., 184; David Bilchitz, ‘Constitutionalism, the Global South, and Economic Justice’, in Constitutionalism of the Global South: The Activist Tribunals of India, South Africa, and Colombia, ed. Daniel Bonilla Maldonado (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013); Rodríguez-Garavito and Rodríguez-Franco, Juicio a La Exclusión.

79. Colombia’s Constitutional Court, judgment T-25/04, 22 January 2004, in particular sections 7, 9.

80. This and the next quotation are from ibid., section 6.

81. This and the next two quotations are all from ibid., section 6.2.

82. Ibid., section 6.3.

83. Ibid., section with findings and section 9.

84. See e.g., UN Committee on ESCR, General Comment No. 3, para. 10. For more on this case and its implementation, see Rodríguez-Garavito and Rodríguez-Franco, Juicio a La Exclusión.

85. See e.g., Klatt, ‘Positive Rights: Who Decides?’’; Langford, Social Rights Jurisprudence; Langford, ‘Social Rights Adjudication’; Young, ‘Constituting Economic and Social Rights’; Young, ‘A Typology of Economic and Social Rights Adjudication’.

86. Langford, ‘Social Rights Adjudication’.

87. Regarding Peru, see e.g. Peru’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission, Final Report (2003) at General Conclusions, Section I, paras. 27, 28, 34, 55, http://www.cverdad.org.pe/ifinal/conclusiones.php.

88. I thank an anonymous reviewer for bringing this point to my attention.

89. Miller, ‘Effects of Invisibility’, 287–90;

90. Ibid., 287.

91. See e.g., Sharp, ‘Economic Violence in the Practice of African Truth Commissions and Beyond’; International Center for Transitional Justice, Truth Seeking, 23–4.

92. Kenya’s Truth Commission, Final Report, Vol. ii.B, 341.

93. See e.g., Sharp, ‘Introduction: Addressing Economic Violence’; Nevin T. Aiken, ‘The distributive dimension in transitional justice: reassessing the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission’s ability to advance interracial reconciliation’, South Africa, Journal of Contemporary African Studies 34, no. 2 (2016): 190–202; Lisa Hecht and Sabine Michalowski, ‘The Economic and Social Dimensions of Transitional Justice’, in EJTN Concept Paper, (Essex: Essex Tranistional Justice Network, 2012).

94. Kenya’s Truth, Justice and Reconciliation Act [TJR Act], 2008, Section 5.c and Section 6.a, https://digitalcommons.law.seattleu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1011&context=tjrc-core.

95. Ibid., Section 6.g and 6.n; Section 6.n.; Section 6.o; Section 6.p; Section 6.q; and Section 6.s, respectively.

96. Kenya’s Truth Commission, Final Report, Vol. 1, para. 84.

97. Ibid., para. 95.

98. These three conducts were first, unlawful killings and enforced disappearances (including political assassinations, extra-judicial killings and massacres); second, unlawful detention, torture and ill-treatment; and third, sexual violence. See Kenya’s Truth Commission, Final Report, Vol. 1, para. 94.

99. Ibid., para. 98.

100. Ibid., paras. 98–9.

101. This and the next quotation are from Kenya’s Truth Commission, Final Report, Vol. 1, para. 100.

102. Ibid., para. 101.

103. Kenya’s Truth Commission, Final Report, Vol. ii.B, paras. 36–9.

104. Ibid., para. 44.

105. Ibid., para. 50.

106. Ibid., para. 528.

107. This and the next quotation are from Kenya’s Truth Commission, Final Report, Vol. 1, p. xiv.

108. Kenya’s Truth Commission, Final Report, vol. 1, p. xiv.

109. Kimberly Lanegran, ‘Justice for Economic Crimes? Kenya's Truth Commission’, ASPJ: Africa and Francophonie 6, no. 4 (2015): 71.

110. Elena Naughton, ‘Kenya: Case Study’, in Challenging the Conventional: Can Truth Commissions Strengthen Peace Processes?, ed. International Center for Transitional Justice (New York: International Center for Transitional Justice, 2014), 62–5.

111. Nzau Musau, ‘How TJRC Land Chapter was Censored’, The Star, 4 June 2013, www.the-star.co.ke/news/article-122777/how-tjrcland-chapter-was-censored. See also International Commission of Jurists Kenya, ‘KTJN press release on the TJRC report and dissenting opinion’, 13 June 2013, www.icj-kenya.org/index.php/media-centre/press-releases/20-press-statement/532-ktjn-press-release-on-the-tjrc-reportand-dissenting-opinion.

112. UN Transitional Administration in East Timor, Regulation No. 2001/10 on the Establishment of a Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor, UNTAET/REG/2001/10, 13 July 2001, section 1.c.

113. Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in Timor-Leste [CAVR], Chega! The report of the Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in Timor-Leste, 2005, part 6, para. 8.

114. Ibid., part 7, section 7.9.

115. Ibid., part 7, section 7.9, para. 10.

116. Ibid., part 7, section 7.9, paras. 7–8.

117. Ibid., part 7, section 7.9, para. 131.

118. Ibid., part 7, section 7.9, paras. 7–9.

119. Ibid., part 11, section 12.9.

120. Ibid., part 11, section 12.9.

121. Ibid., part 11.

122. See e.g., De Greiff 2013 Report; González, ‘Set to Fail?’.

123. Morten Bergsmo et al., The Backlog of Core International Crimes Case Files in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2nd ed. (Oslo: Oslo Forum for International Criminal and Humanitarian Law, International Peace Research Institute, 2010); Mark Freeman, Truth Commission and Procedural Justice (Cambrdige: Cambridge University Press, 2006); Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Rule-of-Law Tools for Post-Conflict States: Prosecution Initiatives (New York and Geneva: United Nations, 2006), 7–8.

124. Sharp, ‘Introduction: Addressing Economic Violence’, 19; Ochoa-Sánchez, ‘Economic and Social Rights and Transitional Justice’.

125. Bergsmo et al., The Backlog of Core International Crimes Case Files; McAuliffe, Transformative Transitional Justice; UN OHCHR, Transitional Justice and Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 53, 57–8; Sharp, ‘Introduction: Addressing Economic Violence’.

126. Van Boven 1993 Report, para. 21; Karimova, ‘What Amounts to “A Serious Violation of International Human Rights Law”?’, 5, 19.

127. Hayner, Unspeakable Truths, 122.

128. Schmid and Nolan, ‘“Do No Harm”?’.

129. Ochoa-Sánchez, ‘Economic and Social Rights and Transitional Justice’.

Additional information

Funding

This article was prepared under the auspices of a research grant conferred by Universidad Jorge Tadeo Lozano in Bogotá, Colombia, under Grant number 12401531.