Planning for Film Tourism: Active Destination Image Management

Abstract

The reported impact of films on tourist visitation is immense. All the same, most cases appear to be the exception, rather than the rule. This paper presents the need of an image strategy to obtain the most sustainable benefits from films. Image strategies require the assessment of a destination's image, and the role that films play to reinforce or enhance the destination's positive attributes. To theorise and exemplify the strategic use of films in a destination image strategy the case of Tourism New Zealand and The Lord of the Rings is used. Implications are that if there is alignment to the actual and market ideal image, then use of the film is indicated. Investment in promoting the alignments will depend on film production investment and potential audience reach. Finally, expectations should not be for an increase in visitors due to a film, instead expectations of enhanced awareness and familiarity with the destination are positive and successful outcomes.

Introduction

The influence of product placement has generated so much interest that places are now taking on roles in film (Croy and Walker, 2003; Hudson and Ritchie, 2006). Place-placement has been built on the back of runaway production and the identification of the economic impact of film production on locations and countries. There is now a very competitive environment to seduce film producers to base their productions in specific locations, with the Association of Film Commissioners International (2009) boasting over 320 member film commissions worldwide. In the quest for the positive economic impact of production, each of these commissions is actively promoting their place to be the location of any and every film, television show, and advertisement. The presenting of a place in film especially also shows off the country's wares to other film producers, and further builds the location's industry. Additionally, film place-placement has post-production effects (PPE) for the location by way of the growth of tourism (Riley, Baker and Van Doren, 1998; Busby and Klug, 2001). Thus, by a location featuring in a film, it can develop two industries, film and tourism (Cynthia and Beeton, 2009; Ward and O'Regan, 2009).

The film industry and associated organic images are increasingly creating “incidental” tourism promotional images (Croy and Walker, 2003; Hudson and Ritchie, 2006; di Cesare, D'Angelo and Rech, 2009). Additionally, it appears that destination managers have not exercised the positive influence that these feature films have on a destination and tourism to that location (Croy and Walker, 2003; Beeton, 2005, 2006a, 2006b). Furthermore, studies have acknowledged the potential for contests and negative impacts resulting from film production and film tourism (Beeton, 2005, 2006b; Croy and Buchmann, 2009; O'Connor, Flanagan and Gilbert, 2009).

The potential impacts of film provide indications that film tourism, as with all types of tourism, needs to be managed to make the most effective and sustainable use for the destination and the destination's communities. Implied is that all films, and other forms of fictional media, can have positive impacts on the destination and community, if managed well. In the context of film-induced tourism and previous studies, the question is what do destination managers specifically need to focus on. What are the crucial roles that film plays to induce tourists to a destination, and how can this understanding be maximised for the destination's sustainability. The key role of film, in the holistic tourist experience, is in creating images of places, including awareness, motivations, expectations, familiarity and complex images. In this context this paper presents a strategic image-management framework for the planned use of film. First, a brief review of image strategies is presented. Second, the process of image building will be discussed, before third, over-viewing film tourism in New Zealand. Fourth, the case of The Lord of the Rings, and Tourism New Zealand's strategic use of the films will be theorised. Finally, implications and conclusions will be presented.

Image Management

Destination image is a principle component of tourists' decision-making process, and consequently, a prime component of the management of a sustainable destination (Mackay and Fesenmaier, 2000; Laws, Scott and Parfitt, 2002). Image affects prospective markets through the construction of place awareness, availability and evaluation; the image secures tourists' destination choice (Hunt, 1975; Um and Crompton, 1990; Chon, 1991; Baloglu and McCleary, 1999; Day, Skidmore and Koller, 2002). Image is consequently crucial, and the management of destination image needs to be strategically directed (Barich and Kotler, 1991; Howard, 1998; Laws, Scott and Parfitt, 2002; Pike, 2004).

The importance of image and the need for strategic direction was emphasised by Hunt (1975), where he noted there has been difficulty in operationalising destination image management. Even in the twenty-first century, the consideration and strategic management of destination image still appears to face operational difficulty in the tourism industry (Pike, 2004). All the same, many cities have strategically re-imaged their global perception to maintain, enhance and develop the benefits gained from tourist visitation (Hall and Hamon, 1996; Howard, 1998). Although the destinations' success at achieving sustainability may be argued, evidence suggests that a strategic approach to image management does work.

Despite the evidence and examples of image management, there are two significant barriers limiting destination managers' strategic ability to address destination image. These are the ability to control image, and a booster or advocate focus. In the first, there are many factors that affect image outside the control of the manager (Gunn, 1972; Fakeye and Crompton, 1991; Gartner, 1993; Baloglu and McCleary, 1999). The general media plays a large role in the creation and dissemination of destination image (Moutinho, 1987; Butler, 1990; Altheide, 1997; Fodness and Murray, 1999), especially so in the initial stages of destination image formation (Fakeye and Crompton, 1991; Gartner, 1993; Jenkins, 1999; Croy and Wheeler, 2007). Most of this media influence is outside the control of destination managers, yet strategies to mitigate or reinforce these image releases can be implemented (Barich and Kotler, 1991; Howard, 1998; Iwashita, 2006). The destination manager has to know what message will create what image in the minds of possible tourists. Thus, implicit within the consideration of destination image management is the source of image and its credibility (Gartner, 1993). As such, managers need very careful evaluation of destination images presented to possible visitors, controlled or not (Baloglu and Brinberg, 1997).

The second barrier to strategic destination image management is the “booster” or “advocate” focus on destination promotion, negating destination management (Pike, 2004, Beeton, 2006b). As implied in strategic image management, tourism planning and management is critical for the successful and sustainable development of tourism (Bosselman, Peterson and McCarthy, 1999; Aronsson, 2000; Hall, 2000). Similar to product and corporate image management, destination image management has many advantages, including being able to quickly identify shifts in destination perceptions and develop action plans, identify areas of concern and focus action to develop these components, identify areas of success and focus action to promote these components, and assess whether image management action is working (Barich and Kotler, 1991). Additionally, the destination needs to provide a realistic image to satisfy visitors' needs, specifically to create a positive evaluation and choice (Moutinho, 1987; Um and Crompton, 1990; Joppe, Martin and Waalen 2001; Akama and Kieti, 2003).

The image strategy also has to account for many characteristics of image, which makes management all the more challenging (Gartner, 1993). Two are especially important. First, image is not static. Furthermore, image “is amended by information received from the environment. However, it is unlikely to change easily; in some cases people are remarkably stubborn and tenacious in holding on to an image” (Crompton and Lamb, 1986, p. 214). Second, as related to fluidity and contradicting tenacity of image, is that “building a positive image or changing a negative one has been hypothesized to be a long process” (Gartner and Shen, 1992, p. 47). Film-induced tourism studies exemplify both of these characteristics. The image constructed could generate too many (or few) visitors, and a changed image may change the type of visitors, and so on (Riley and Van Doren, 1992; Tooke and Baker, 1996; Riley, Baker and Van Doren, 1998; Busby and Klug, 2001; Beeton, 2005; Hudson and Ritchie, 2006). Even though, to a large degree, the more credible and pervasive media cannot be controlled by a destination, it is crucial that destination managers do manage image. Importantly, given the fluidity of image, further modifying these credible agents is possible. The emphasis is on management of the fluid image formation and destination image, not control.

With consideration of the advantages of image management and inherent issues, Barich and Kotler (1991) presented a four-step image management process, with implied feedback (Figure 1). In this process, Barich and Kotler (1991) identified that image measures are useful as a planning as well as marketing tool (also see Gartner, 1993; Howard, 1998; Laws, Scott and Parfitt, 2002). The first step is to assess the image of the destination. The assessment of the image entails two related parts: assessing the actual image, and assessing the target market's ideal image. The second step is to measure the image periodically and systematically. Third is comparing the actual (measured) image to the target market's ideal destination image to identify differences between the two. The fourth step is to develop strategies to address the identified differences. This strategy development step then feeds back to the first or second step in the process.

Figure 1. Image management process.

These strategic steps should become inherent in destination management, focusing future consideration on maximising of the positive components, rather than just the image portrayed; in essence, defining image management as more than just promoting images.

Accordingly, a destination can control aspects of its image through presentation of induced agents and the planned production of place (Gunn, 1972; Fakeye and Crompton, 1991; Gartner, 1993; Baloglu and McCleary, 1999; Fodness and Murray, 1999). The gaps between the potential tourists' ideal destination and the actual destination's image indicate differences in their travel expectations and destination expectations (Joppe, Martin and Waalen, 2001). These gaps may be perceived or actual gaps that need development to be filled. Potential tourists need to have the strategically developed image communicated, and through a relatively credible source, reflecting that changing an image may be a long and hard-fought process (Crompton and Lamb, 1986; Gartner, 1993).

Image Building

The literature, in parts, has developed the process of image building, and identified its influence on decision making. Models sourced from the tourism literature reflect the role of general (organic agents) and tourism specific (induced agents) media in the provision of an image of a destination (Gunn, 1972; Fakeye and Crompton, 1991; Gartner, 1993; Baloglu and McCleary, 1999; Jenkins, 1999; Croy and Wheeler, 2007). Organic images create initial destination awareness and motivation. The organic images are a product of personal and social events, and stimulus factors from the day-to-day environment. At this stage, the sources of images are increasingly from the general media, as compared to personal experience or from tourism advertising (Butler, 1990; Altheide, 1997; Nielsen, 2001). Furthermore, word-of-mouth, and books, movies and news are the two most important types of information sources (Baloglu and McCleary, 1999). Thus, one of the sources of media images gaining increasing note in the tourism literature is the feature film (Riley, Baker and Van Doren, 1998; Busby and Klug 2001).

The effects of film creating or enhancing images of place and creating tourist visitation have been reported (Tooke and Baker, 1996; Riley, Baker and Van Doren, 1998; Beeton, 2001; Busby and Klug, 2001). What has been identified is that films, and other fictional media, create associations with the stars, stories and location. These associations induce visitors to the location to re-interpret the events and to further personalise the lives of those depicted on screen, or alternatively, these associations enhance the awareness of the destination, reducing barriers to travel, whilst at the same time creating incentives (Croy and Walker, 2003, Beeton, 2005; Macionis and Sparks, 2009). Film is a motivational driver, though not necessarily to a place directly (di Cesare, D'Angelo and Rech, 2009; Macionis and Sparks 2009). Instead, films create or build upon already existing images (Iwashita, 2006), motivate a search for further information, and thus play a complex role in potential tourist image building and decision making. This complex image-building role of film was a target of Tourism New Zealand's piggyback promotion with The Lord of the Rings.

Film (and) Tourism in New Zealand: The Lord of the Rings

The impact of The Lord of the Rings on New Zealand's international tourist numbers has received much attention. This impact is often overstated in all-encompassing phrases such as “Lord of the Rings sent a huge wave of British tourists scurrying to New Zealand” (Grihault, 2003, p. 1), “tens of thousands of fans [were attracted]…to the twin antipodal islands to see the movie locales first-hand” (Houpt, 2003), and “the three films created a massive tourist industry in New Zealand” (Tzanelli, 2004, p. 23). In fact, any change in international visitation has been slight, and in line with previous trends (Ministry of Tourism, 2009). Furthermore, research has identified that the films and associated advertising had very limited impact on visitation (NFO New Zealand, 2003; Jones and Smith, 2005). This was part of the planned strategic use of the films, and this context and plan will be theorised here. Through the paper it should become apparent that Tourism New Zealand actively implemented an image management process; the association of The Lord of the Rings with New Zealand was not a coincidental happening due to the success of the films.

Tourism New Zealand has undertaken much research on destination perceptions in its main generating markets. A comparison of the perceived and actual images of New Zealand formed the basis for Tourism New Zealand's image management strategies. The key strength images of New Zealand have centred on nature and the passive and active experiences in these environments. Also identified was that the image of New Zealand, and in cases the awareness of New Zealand, was not strong.

With the imminent America's Cup sailing competition (2000) occurring in New Zealand, Peter Jackson announced the filming The Lord of the Rings trilogy in New Zealand. Still aware of New Zealand's low international profile in generating markets, Tourism New Zealand quickly identified the opportunity the films and America's Cup presented. First, The Lord of the Rings, with an already existing cult following, was going to be on international screens. Second, the amount set for production, $US350 million, meant that New Line Cinema, the production company, would also invest in promotional efforts for the films internationally. Third, the power of media, and especially films, to create images (Liebes and Curran, 1998; Andsager and Drzewiecka, 2002; Mercille, 2005), and the increasing international audience reach (Tooke and Baker, 1996; Deiss, 2001; Motion Picture Association, 2006), provided the opportunity to divorce the books and audiences from an old Europe. Moreover, fourth, the films attributes, in characters, storyline, and scenery, aligned with the perceived and projected tourism image of New Zealand.

The books had the advantage of having a ready international market for the films, whilst also having the potential disadvantage of a pre-existing location for the story. Whilst many films are based on books, not many have the existing following of The Lord of the Rings, and as such are often easier to “relocate” through the use of film. For Tourism New Zealand's consideration, the pre-existing location may have been difficult to change, and may even have created offence with such an involved readership. Additionally, the films may induce further tourism to “old Europe” locations previously associated with the books, or even motivate experiences totally dislocated from the films (Springwood, 2002; Torchin, 2002; Sydney-Smith, 2006). Nonetheless, Tourism New Zealand, knowing the high profile the films would generate, took a gamble on locating Middle-earth in New Zealand.

The international following, and even obsession with films and celebrity, meant there was a demanding audience for stories from the films. Tourism New Zealand used this to start implementing the image strategy. Through their pre-existing and actively targeted international media-hosting scheme, journalists toured around New Zealand. Whilst many journalists did not visit the actual film sets, there was often the mention of New Zealand being the location of The Lord of the Rings. Use was also made of “in the making documentaries” to show the stars off-set, doing tourist activities around the country; implicit or covert celebrity endorsement (Gartner, 1993). In this coverage, the stories were very much about the country, rather than the films, providing probable experiences of tourists. During production, the international media, perceived as relatively credible, was creating the connection between The Lord of the Rings and New Zealand; adding constructs to build upon later in the strategy (Iwashita, 2006). The media coverage was generating awareness of New Zealand, and the association with endorsements and tourist activities were creating a trusted familiarity with the country.

Stage two was the release of the films. Again, knowing the production company's investment to promote the films, the key target for Tourism New Zealand was connecting the films to the country; piggyback marketing. Investing in promotional spaces and events at the premiers, advertising in magazines featuring editorials of the films, and creating fanfare so the journalists would ask the stars about New Zealand in their interviews, all aiding the connection between films and country. Of course, having three films, over three years, and the growing celebrity of the actors all helped the connection cause.

In all of this, the films were to generate awareness of and familiarity with New Zealand, not tourism demand. Existing images of New Zealand were not widely held, nor were they strong. Additionally, New Zealand is a long-haul destination to most of its international markets. As such, potential tourists would not make a relatively high-risk travel decision based on just one or even three films. As Iwashita (2006) noted, film and television build upon already existing interest in visiting, thus a sole direct impact of film on travel decisions is unlikely. Similarly, investigating the complexity of the relationship between film and tourism, Macionis and Sparks (2009) and di Cesare, D'Angelo, and Rech (2009) further noted that film is not a primary motivator, rather an incidental experience of general tourists.

In this context, the image strategy was to drive people to the Tourism New Zealand website. The website was the tool to create concrete links between the film sights and the country. After the release, the films were attributed peak usage rates of the website (Tourism New Zealand, 2002), and were noted as “invaluable for the tourism profile of New Zealand” (Tourism New Zealand, 2003, p. 6). The website additionally had many connections between the films and the country. It starred the actors, director, special effects people, and producers, telling of their New Zealand experiences, not the film. These connections are still on the tourism website, relying on the continued awareness of the films, and associations with the country.

Nonetheless, the results of using The Lord of the Rings as an image-building tool were largely anecdotal; hence, the films have attracted research reports. These reports have been largely to justify the Government's investment in the films, and to obtain funding for future film productions. For example, the report for the New Zealand Film Commission (New Zealand Institute of Economic Research, 2002), was largely focused on the direct economic impacts of the films, and in line for who the report was written for, is largely focused on the film industry. Nonetheless, the report's brief review of Walker's (2002) film-tourism thesis identifies a link with tourism, though underplays the lasting effect of film on tourism. In this vein, Tourism New Zealand commissioned further research to identify the influence of The Lord of the Rings on international visitors to New Zealand and those searching on the website. Guiding the research was the need to understand the extent to which the films influenced visitors to go to New Zealand, and particularly to identify the level of awareness and resulting impact of the trilogy on travel decision making. The report was to specifically identify and measure the influence of The Lord of the Rings as an image-building tool and to support the anecdotal findings.

The results presented showed that most visitors and potential visitors were aware of the films (NFO New Zealand, 2003). A majority of visitors and potential visitors had watched one of the films, and 95% of current visitors knew that New Zealand was the filming location for The Lord of the Rings. The measurable impacts of the trilogy were that 9% of visitors indicated that The Lord of the Rings was one reason, though not the main reason, to visit New Zealand, and 0.3% stated that the films were a main, though not sole reason for visiting. Of potential visitors, 65% noted that they were more likely to visit New Zealand because of the films or the associated publicity. The scenery presented in the films and publicity was the main influencing factor (overall, similar findings to di Cesare, D'Angelo and Rech, 2009). The films raised awareness of New Zealand, and this increased the motivation or likelihood to visit New Zealand. The awareness levels, and respondent association between films and country, indicated high levels of success for the planned image-building use of film.

Following the success of using The Lord of the Rings, Tourism New Zealand has prominently placed major international films on their website, particularly The Chronicles of Narnia. Locations of film sites and experiences are also on the website. All the same, Tourism New Zealand has not gone to the same effort with other films. A key factor would be the uncertainty of the audience scale and acceptance, and the production company promotion of the films, to piggyback upon. Interestingly, other films, including The Last Samurai, Whale Rider, Perfect Strangers, and The Fastest Indian, are no longer on the website.

Implications and Conclusions

With the increased importance placed on film as a tourism destination creation and marketing tool by tourism organisations (Croy and Walker, 2003; Pike, 2004; Hudson and Ritchie, 2006), these findings have many implications for destination managers. From many previous film tourism studies (Riley and Van Doren, 1992; Tooke and Baker, 1996; Riley, Baker and Van Doren, 1998; Busby and Klug, 2001; Beeton, 2005), and the one describe here, the importance of destination image to destination managers is not to be underestimated. More directly, film may be a relatively credible tool to modify people's image of place, and as a personalising agent, a very effective tool (Riley, Baker and van Doren, 1998; Mercille, 2005; Hudson and Ritchie, 2006). With films' potential for personalisation and perceived credibility, the modified image is memorable, and retained much longer than advertisements (Riley and Van Doren, 1992; Macionis and Sparks, 2009). For destination managers, the perception that a film will modify the image is likely to be true (Croy and Walker, 2003; Hudson and Ritchie, 2006; Croy and Buchmann, 2009).

How a film will affect the image (positively or negatively), how much it will affect the image (a little or a lot), and whether the effect will induce tourism are more pertinent questions. With so many dependents, on the film and the audience's interpretation, the use of film for marketing needs to be monitored (Croy and Walker, 2003; Beeton, 2005; Hudson and Ritchie, 2006). Additionally, destination managers may not manage the direct effect a film has on a destination's image. However, with an awareness of how the film may influence the image, the destination's strategic needs, managers can implement targeted information to modify the image (Gartner, 1993; Tourism New Zealand, 2002). More so now, the avenues to provide this targeted information have increased, as have these avenues' impacts (Baloglu and McCleary, 1999; Mercille, 2005). The uses of websites and media familiarisation tours are only two means, and other avenues could be through guidebooks, postcards, documentaries, and so on (Hudson and Ritchie, 2006). Importantly, the audience perceives each of these media as relatively credible (Gartner, 1993; King and Beeton, 2006).

Most importantly for destination managers is the implication that film changes image of place, and can modify the availability and evaluation of a destination for discretionary travel. All the same, not all films have a dramatic effect, and the film might have a negative effect, further highlighting the need for a strategic approach (Barich and Kotler, 1991; Croy and Walker, 2003; Hudson and Ritchie, 2006; Croy and Buchmann, 2009). Destination managers need to know what potential visitors' destination images are, what will induce them to visit, and how aware, familiar and complex their image is (Barich and Kotler, 1991; Croy and Wheeler, 2007). When producers select the destination (either filmed or set), there must be a quick assessment of the potential alignment with the positive and achievable image of the destination. If there are only elements of alignment, effort is needed to create and foster these links. Furthermore, if the alignment is only evident post-production, destination managers still need to invest effort (Hudson and Ritchie, 2006). How much effort will be dependent on the potential engagement or reach of the film into the tourist target markets. Additionally and importantly, the uncontrolled film image should only ever be one component in a destination image strategy. Of course, all assessed results will need to feed back into the strategy.

In conclusion, the active desire for place-placement in films is increasing. There is also growing awareness of PPE and especially for tourism. Nonetheless, the effects of films on destinations are generally not fully appreciated and are often under- or overstated. Films create awareness, build on the existing images, enhance the complexity of that image, and spark motivations to visit destinations. The images held are the basis of expectations, and hence selection of a destination.

The role of organic agents in image building has become increasingly important in New Zealand, where The Lord of the Rings has become a part of any story about the country. Tourism New Zealand's international media hosting substantially aided the association of The Lord of the Rings to New Zealand. The use of the films and the general media articles, as organic images, complemented Tourism New Zealand's direct promotional efforts and has created an enduring connection to the country.

The results indicate a significant link between The Lord of the Rings and the international image of New Zealand. Nonetheless, the films' role in building this image is still under-defined. The implementation of the image strategy by Tourism New Zealand has been an important investment in resources and image, and one that has paid off. The film images are indicatively positive for international travellers, and the explicit association with New Zealand, developed in the general media and promotional materials, has supported the positive image. Overall, this indicates that The Lord of the Rings and the Tourism New Zealand strategy have been good for New Zealand tourism. Of crucial importance was the planned association of the film to the country. Without the extensive image strategy, it is unlikely tourists and planners would know the now commonly held relationship of the films to New Zealand. A closing point, for the management of film-image relationships, the expectations should not be for a great influx of tourists. Obtaining greater awareness of the filmed destination, as it was with New Zealand, is a hugely valuable outcome.

Notes