Unlocking rewards for sustainability: a framework for valuing pro-environmental behaviors in Polish cities

Abstract

Addressing the pressing need for urban sustainability, we propose an innovative framework for quantifying and rewarding pro-environmental behaviors among urban residents. The methodology integrates three key dimensions: individual engagement, community values, and environmental impact. Individual effort is measured using the metabolic equivalent of task rates, which capture the energy expenditure for pro-environmental actions. Community values are prioritized by allocating weights based on their local importance, established by stakeholder engagement. A comprehensive literature review is used to evaluate the specific ecological benefits of each activity, ensuring that their contributions to sustainability are measured. Focusing on Gdańsk, Poland, as a case study, a diverse set of pro-environmental actions with local importance was carefully selected and evaluated. Stakeholder input enabled objective ranking and weighting, ensuring that actions were significant and impactful. This systematic approach determines rewards, aligning them with individual effort, community goals, and environmental benefits, demonstrating the framework’s adaptability to various urban settings. The findings suggest that the framework may be effectively used in future endeavors to encourage meaningful, long-term pro-environmental behaviors. It provides a scalable solution to urban sustainability issues through tailored incentive strategies. Finally, by balancing individual efforts and environmental benefits, this study establishes a blueprint for policies that foster a globally active and environmentally mindful community.

Keywords:

• Sustainability transitions
• pro-environmental behavior
• stakeholder engagement
• environmental benefits
• rewards

Introduction

The transition toward a sustainable society is a pressing global priority given escalating challenges such as climate change, resource depletion, and pollution (Merz et al. 2023). Such challenges highlight the necessity for collective sustainability efforts (de Jesus et al. 2019). At the heart of this transition is the engagement of urban residents in pro-environmental behaviors, influenced by social norms, environmental awareness, and institutional support (Kautish and Sharma 2020; Steg et al. 2014). In particular, residents who engage with pro-environmental behaviors regularly might significantly impact urban sustainability.

Adopting these behaviors serves two purposes: mitigating environmental degradation and upholding sustainability principles (Prati, Albanesi, and Pietrantoni 2017). Beyond their direct environmental benefits, these behaviors contribute to the community by promoting social cohesion, cultivating community ties, and reinforcing sustainable norms (Miller et al. 2022). Sustainable behaviors also induce significant economic benefits, streamlining resource utilization and enhancing the ecological performance of enterprises (Piwowar-Sulej and Kołodziej 2022). Moreover, a healthier environment directly enhances physical and mental well-being, where the perceived performance of government initiatives may significantly influence public engagement in pro-environmental behaviors (Hadavi 2017; Li et al. 2024). Sustainable practices, such as recycling and energy conservation, correlate with increased personal satisfaction and improved quality of life perception (Klug and Niemand 2021).

The alignment of these practices with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) highlights their international implications, playing crucial roles in achieving objectives like ensuring sustainable energy alternatives, promoting responsible consumption, and fostering community growth (Guang-Wen et al. 2023). Regarding environmental justice, emphasis on pro-environmental actions presents alternatives to tackle the disproportionate ecological impacts experienced by marginalized communities, fostering a society where everyone benefits from a clean and unpolluted environment (Fuller and Brugge 2020).

The practical promotion and integration of pro-environmental behaviors depend on comprehending and utilizing key variables (Miller et al. 2022). Various elements like environmental concern, social norms, institutional support, and educational structures shape these behaviors (He et al. 2019; Prati, Albanesi, and Pietrantoni 2017; Steg et al. 2014). For instance, a synergistic mix of norms and policies can foster an environment receptive to sustainable practices (Zhang, Xie, and Gao 2022). Furthermore, educational programs are pivotal in disseminating knowledge, fostering motivation, and promoting environmentally conscious choices within the general population (Mendoza, Gallego-Schmid, and Azapagic 2019). According to Mendoza, Gallego-Schmid, and Azapagic (2019), motivation is essential in the intention toward pro-environmental behaviors, and such motivations can often be influenced by incentives or rewards. In marketing, financial and non-financial schemes are instrumental in directing customers to be loyal users of certain products. The incentives, therefore, generate motivation for the users.

Internationally, various initiatives have been implemented to promote sustainability and tackle the consequences caused by human activities. These efforts seek to foster behavioral changes that enhance health (Puska et al. 2016), address alternative sustainable living models (Moravčíková and Fürjészová 2018), and promote environmentally friendly production and consumption in urban settings (Duda et al. 2022; Obracht-Prondzyńska et al. 2022; Radziszewski et al. 2021). Recently, we witnessed a few initiatives that aim to motivate residents to demonstrate pro-environmental behavior through rewards or incentives. For example, in Scotland, young residents receive a reward for the low-carbon benefits they create through daily activities like cycling, recycling, and buying local foods.¹ Radziszewski et al. (2021) also highlight the potential of reward-based mechanisms to promote sustainable actions among urban residents in Eastern Europe.

Despite the critical role of pro-environmental behaviors in urban sustainability, a significant gap exists in assessing, valuing, and incentivizing these behaviors. Kautish and Sharma (2020) argue that current approaches lack a comprehensive, evidence-based framework that integrates a multidimensional approach. Recent initiatives in various urban contexts have begun to leverage rewards to motivate pro-environmental behavior among residents, reflecting an emerging recognition of the potential to drive sustainable actions through positive reinforcement (Radziszewski et al. 2021; Zawieska et al. 2022). However, the absence of a systematic, objective methodology to evaluate and quantify these behaviors poses a challenge to the effective implementation and scalability of incentive schemes, particularly in urban settings (Nguyen-Van, Stenger, and Tiet 2021).

Given the current state of the art, this article aims to fill this gap by introducing a novel, comprehensive framework designed to objectively assess pro-environmental behaviors among urban residents and propose equitable rewards. By leveraging the metabolic equivalent of task (MET) rates, stakeholder weights, and environmental benefits, our methodology integrates these dimensions to offer a systematic evaluation and reward system for pro-environmental actions. Focused on the city of Gdańsk, this study not only addresses Poland’s specific urban environmental challenges but also demonstrates the framework’s transferability to other regions, thus contributing to the broader discourse on sustainable urban development and governance. The study addresses the following research questions:

RQ1: How can the value of pro-environmental activities performed by urban residents be objectively assessed through a multidimensional framework?

RQ2: How does the methodology address Poland’s urban environmental challenges, and how might it be transferable to other regions?

RQ3: How can this evaluative strategy influence future governance for equitable incentives and increased environmental awareness?

The following section introduces the theoretical foundation of this study and frames the research objectives. The third section presents the underlying methodological framework, followed by the case study on the Polish context. The latter sections are dedicated to discussion and conclusions.

Theoretical foundation

Within the current discourse surrounding sustainability and environmentally responsible initiatives (Bina, Inch, and Pereira 2020), the synergy between incentives and digital technologies emerges as fundamental in promoting and assessing pro-environmental behaviors. Environmental awareness, habitat quality, and social capital significantly impact pro-environmental behavior, emphasizing the importance of individual engagement and community support in sustainability efforts (Smith et al. 2021). The basic premise of this synergy is that integrating technological advancements, coupled with appropriate motivational structures, can facilitate the adoption of more sustainable choices (Zawieska et al. 2022). This section delves into how these combined factors influence individual and collective actions, laying a foundation for further evaluating their environmental sustainability impact.

Pro-environmental behavior, considered a voluntary action benefiting the public good, has attracted interest due to its potential to promote sustainable futures (Meyer 2016). These behaviors frequently arise due to a combination of intrinsic and external motivations, among which incentives and technology play an essential role (Zawieska et al. 2022). The effectiveness of monetary and social incentives in triggering positive environmental behaviors underscores the critical role of integrating incentives within technological platforms to amplify their impact (Nguyen-Van, Stenger, and Tiet 2021; Reddy et al. 2016). Digital platforms, through real-time data collection and analysis, enable more targeted and effective pro-environmental initiatives. They also can potentially increase environmental commitment through features like gamification, rewards, and social engagement (Casaló, Escario, and Rodriguez-Sanchez 2019; Liao et al. 2019; Paneru and Tarigan 2023; Zhou, Lin, and Mou 2023). When seamlessly integrated into user-friendly digital interfaces, incentives can further empower marginalized communities (Martinez Dy 2022). The seamless integration of motivation, values, and social support plays a pivotal role in promoting widespread pro-environmental behavior, as these components enhance a holistic structure for environmental engagement (Legault 2023). Governmental assistance in designing context-specific incentives aligned with community values can further augment collective pro-environmental efforts (Bell et al. 2023; Caleman, Monteiro, and Hendrikse 2017; Taylor et al. 2021). In addition, technological platforms amplify the impact of incentives on behaviors, potentially enabling large-scale shifts toward environmental awareness and action (Brower et al. 2020; Crawford, English, and Braver 2022; Radziszewski et al. 2021; Zawieska et al. 2022).

Environmental disruptions, such as pandemics, have induced positive outcomes in human activities (Silva, Ruano, and Sanchez-Alcalde 2020), creating opportunities for innovative and transformative digital solutions (Srisathan and Naruetharadhol 2022). Accessible, affordable, and user-friendly digital interventions can shape sustainable behaviors and enhance environmental benefits (Casaló, Escario, and Rodriguez-Sanchez 2019; Oppong-Tawiah et al. 2020). Although seemingly minor, the collective influence of individual eco-actions ultimately contributes to notable environmental benefits (Nguyen-Van, Stenger, and Tiet 2021). Strategic utilization of incentives in digital environments can potentially foster long-term environmental involvement and subsequent advantages (Goswami 2017).

The core idea of the proposed methodology is to establish an equitable incentive structure that acknowledges individuals’ contributions to pro-environmental activities, considering the perceived value of these actions within the community and their tangible environmental benefits. It aims to offer a comprehensive and equitable strategy that balances individual, community, and environmental concerns. Interestingly, the influence of theistic stewardship beliefs on pro-environmental actions is evident, highlighting the impact of cultural and personal values on environmental behavior (Eom and Ng 2023). While several methodologies have been framed for the measurement of pro-environmental behavior and its determinants (Lange and Dewitte 2019; Xia and Liu 2021), few have addressed the direct and indirect effects of incentive structures on behavior (Bell et al. 2023; Ghesla et al. 2020; Rakotonarivo et al. 2021). By leveraging technology’s capabilities to assess and monitor sustainable behaviors, this approach presents a comprehensive strategy that acknowledges the community’s values in enhancing the quality of life and the ecological benefits that arise from individual participation in environmentally friendly actions.

The fundamental objective of this research is to establish an equitable incentive framework that allocates rewards to individuals on the level of commitment toward pro-environmental actions, the degree of community acceptance of efforts, and the tangible environmental benefits they generate. Therefore, this article aims to introduce a novel methodology assessing pro-environmental behaviors using a comprehensive multidimensional framework. The aim is to provide insights into future governance structures capable of effectively integrating engagement efforts, community valuation, and environmental benefits.

Methodology

This study presents a systematic framework for evaluating urban residents’ pro-environmental actions, emphasizing the interaction between individual efforts, community values, and environmental benefits. Identifying and selecting specific pro-environmental actions to be evaluated within our framework is a critical first step in this process – subsequently, the contributing parameters around which pro-environmental behaviors will be examined and integrated into the framework.

Selection of pro-environmental actions

An intricate interplay of factors influences the choice of pro-environmental actions for this article, each playing a unique role in the decision-making process. The analysis and categorization of pro-environmental behavior have been extensively examined within academic discourse (Miller et al. 2022). A widely used classification approach centers around the immediate ecological impacts of actions. A different viewpoint classifies behavior based on the actor’s intentions to safeguard the environment (Nguyen-Van, Stenger, and Tiet 2021). Psychological factors, particularly self-efficacy, are crucial in comprehending pro-environmental habits within socio-economic groups (Casaló, Escario, and Rodriguez-Sanchez 2019). Moreover, the convergence of individual moral principles and external factors, such as financial consequences and incentivization, has attracted considerable interest in fostering environmentally responsible behavior (Steg et al. 2014).

These insights provide valuable guidance for selecting the relevant pro-environmental behaviors locally and developing effective public policies and initiatives to promote increased environmental awareness and quality. In light of these factors, this study selected pro-environmental actions based on their potential for significant environmental impact, their relevance to the Polish urban context, feasibility for individual or community implementation, and suitability for tracking and assessment (Duda et al. 2022; Obracht-Prondzyńska et al. 2022; Radziszewski et al. 2021). The actions are: (1) walking and cycling, (2) using public transportation, (3) cleaning public space, (4) rainwater retention, (5) permeable surface retrofitting, (6) creating green urban habitats, (7) implementing green walls or green roofs, (8) segregating waste, and (9) visiting repair shops. The selected actions represent a diverse spectrum of behaviors that exhibit the capacity to generate significant environmental impacts and foster civic engagement.

Multidimensional design framework

The methodology for quantifying pro-environmental behavior incorporates three essential components, as represented on the left-hand side in Figure 1: (1) Engagement relates to individuals’ commitment and effort in carrying out environmentally friendly actions; (2) The Community corresponds to the magnitude to which a community places importance on particular pro-environmental actions; and (3) The Environment, which assesses the direct environmental benefits that are gained from engaging in environmentally friendly actions.

Figure 1. Proposed methodological framework.

Integrating the Engagement, Community, and Environment dimensions ensures that the pro-environmental actions receiving the highest level of incentives align with community interest, exhibit greater effort from individuals, and have a significant environmental impact. Conversely, pro-environmental actions with lesser community relevance and individual effort and fewer environmental benefits receive smaller incentives.

The reward-allocation methodology consists of three interconnected components (Figure 1, right-hand panel). The color coding used to represent the elements of the conceptual framework on the left-hand side is consistently maintained in the reward-allocation framework on the right-hand side of Figure 1, ensuring a seamless visual connection between the two representations. The evaluation criteria consist of community value, individual effort, and environmental impacts. These criteria are further quantified through specific assessment methods, resulting in identifiable and measurable quantified indicators. The quantified indicators comprising pro-environmental action weights, energy expenditure, and valuation of environmental impacts are combined to determine the reward allocation for the selected pro-environmental actions. The methodology employs various assessment methods to quantify the evaluation criteria related to community value, engagement intensity, and environmental impact, which are detailed in the following sections.

Assessing community values

To understand community values regarding pro-environmental actions, this research employed the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), a recognized method within Multicriteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) (Langemeyer et al. 2020). The purpose of MCDA is to establish a framework and formalize the decision-making process by assessing alternatives based on a predetermined set of weighted criteria. AHP was selected for its unique capability to facilitate expert assessment in a structured manner (Odu 2019). This approach offers a viable strategy for integrating a hierarchical structure of proposed actions into policy formulation, enabling the customization of incentivized frameworks to tackle specific environmental issues effectively at the local level.

The AHP methodology was specifically tailored to this study, focusing on collaboration with representatives from the Gdańsk municipality to assess and rank the pro-environmental actions systematically. Consultations were conducted with two distinct groups of stakeholders: employees of the Gdańsk City Hall (four individuals) and representatives of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) operating in the city (five individuals from three organizations). This division ensured that a broad spectrum of perspectives was considered in decision-making, leveraging governmental and non-governmental insights.

The collaborative procedure was organized through two phases. Initially, we provided stakeholders with a comprehensive overview of the AHP method along with materials for evaluating pairs of selected pro-environmental actions. In March 2023, preliminary online meetings were held to address any questions regarding the method. Stakeholders were then asked to complete the comparison tables individually.

A week after the individual assessments, we organized follow-up meetings focused on the ranking-assessment process. This session aimed to address results showing significant differences among stakeholders and to foster a consensus on a compromise assessment agreed upon by all stakeholders involved. The deliberations and decisions made during this session played a pivotal role in determining the relative importance of each pro-environmental action, utilizing the AHP to accurately capture the community’s values. Following the methodologies by Narimissa, Kangarani-Farahani, and Molla-Alizadeh-Zavardehi (2020) and Saaty (2005), further discussions and consensus with the experts allowed for fine-tuning the rankings to reach suitable consistency ratios, validating our approach.

Individual effort assessment

The assessment of individual effort in engaging in pro-environmental actions is a critical component of this research, utilizing the MET as a standardized measure of energy expenditure. The MET compares the energy costs associated with various activities and is defined as the amount of energy expended by an individual at rest, which is approximately equivalent to consuming one kilocalorie per kilogram of body weight per hour (kcal/kg/hour) (Ainsworth et al. 2011; Deyaert et al. 2017).

Research by Balemans et al. (2019) highlights the importance of MET in assessing adults’ energy expenditure, particularly in differentiating physiological responses to sedentary and active lifestyles. Similarly, Toledo-Vargas et al. (2020) underscore the utility of MET in evaluating children’s engagement in physical activity and its implications for health outcomes, further emphasizing its applicability across diverse populations.

To effectively apply MET values in the context of pro-environmental actions, the methodology involved an extensive process of identifying equivalent activities within the Compendium of Physical Activities (Ainsworth et al. 2011) that closely resemble the selected pro-environmental actions. This step ensures that the MET values obtained for each pro-environmental action accurately reflect the energy-consumption data provided for the corresponding physical activities. Subsequently, the MET values were utilized to assess rewards, ensuring that the outcomes were proportional to the effort exerted.

Environmental benefits

Environmental benefits play a pivotal role in addressing the complex nexus of social and environmental sustainability (Stinnett and Gibson 2016). In this study, we assert that environmental benefit parameters are a valid representation of the magnitude of pro-environmental behaviors. In addressing environmental sustainability, this study introduces five ­environmental benefits: (1) mitigating climate change (MCC), (2) climate-change adaptation (CCA), (3) air-quality enhancement (AQE), (4) biodiversity conservation (BC), and (5) nonrenewable resource conservation (NRC). While each domain pursues a specific objective, they naturally overlap, fostering a synergistic framework for environmental enhancement.

MCC involves adopting different strategies to promote less carbon-intensive activities (Guang-Wen et al. 2023). This domain is closely linked to CCA, which centers on initiating strategies to increase the ability to withstand and recover from the adverse effects of climate change (Zawieska et al. 2022). Concurrently, AQE prioritizes maintaining air-pollutant concentrations at levels that are considered safe, mainly achieved by measures to limit the release of pollutants into the atmosphere (Guang-Wen et al. 2023). BC underscores the significance of preserving species and ecosystem diversity, typically achieved through establishing and protecting green urban spaces (Taylor et al. 2021). Finally, NRC emphasizes reducing nonrenewable resource consumption by promoting waste recycling, optimizing resource utilization, and extending product lifespans to ensure a sustainable future (Mendoza, Gallego-Schmid, and Azapagic 2019).

Reward-value assessment

The assessment of reward value for pro-environmental actions in this study is based on integrating three fundamental dimensions: environmental impact, engagement intensity, and community value. The assessment of environmental impact considers the tangible environmental benefits associated with specific actions. The evaluation of engagement intensity is significantly influenced by the utilization of the MET, a metric that, as described above, measures the energy expenditure linked to physical activities. Additionally, weights resulting from the rankings provided by stakeholders serve as a means to capture the community’s viewpoint regarding the importance of different actions. In the following, the mathematical formulation is devised.

The environmental benefits of each action ($E{V}_{\mathit{\text{action}}}$) are adjusted by corresponding stakeholder weights ($E{W}_{\mathit{\text{action}}}$) to yield a weighted environmental value for each action (${\mathit{\text{WEV}}}_{\mathit{\text{action}}}$). $$\mathit{\text{WE}}{V}_{\mathit{\text{action}}}=E{V}_{\mathit{\text{action}}}\ast \hspace{0.17em}E{W}_{\mathit{\text{action}}}$$

Subsequently, the weighted environmental value is factored with the energy expenditure for each action (${\mathit{\text{MET}}}_{\mathit{\text{action}}}$), resulting in an energy-adjusted weighted environmental value (${\mathit{\text{EWEV}}}_{\mathit{\text{action}}}$) for each action. $$\mathit{\text{EWE}}{V}_{\mathit{\text{action}}}=\mathit{\text{WE}}{V}_{\mathit{\text{action}}}\ast \hspace{0.17em}\mathit{\text{ME}}{T}_{\mathit{\text{action}}}$$

These values are then normalized to ensure they are proportionally distributed across all actions, reflecting their collective importance in the incentive structure. The normalization process yields the normalized reward value for each action $\left(N_{\mathit{\text{reward}}}^{\mathit{\text{action}}}\right).$ $$N_{\mathit{\text{reward}}}^{\mathit{\text{action}}}=\frac{{\mathit{\text{EWEV}}}_{\mathit{\text{action}}}}{\sum {\mathit{\text{EWEV}}}_{\mathit{\text{action}}}}$$

The reward allocation ($\mathit{\text{RA}}$) is closely linked with quantifiable factors, such as the distance covered and the duration of actions. For instance, for actions such as walking, cycling, or using public transportation, reward allocation ${(\mathit{\text{RA}}}_{\mathit{\text{dist}}})$ is proportional to the distance covered. $$R{A}_{\mathit{\text{dist}}}=\mathit{\text{Distance}}\ast \hspace{0.17em}{N}_{\mathit{\text{reward}}}^{\mathit{\text{action}}}$$

Similarly, for time-dependent activities such as beach or park cleaning or delivery of segregated waste, reward allocation ${(\mathit{\text{RA}}}_{\mathit{\text{time}}})$ is established by considering the time spent performing the action. $$R{A}_{\mathit{\text{time}}}=\mathit{\text{Time}}\ast \hspace{0.17em}{N}_{\mathrm{rewa}\text{r}d}^{\mathit{\text{action}}}$$

Analysis and results

Context of the analysis

Building upon the methodological foundation, this section focuses on implementing the reward-assessment framework in Gdańsk. In 2022, Gdańsk ranked as the sixth most populous city in Poland with a population of 486,345 residents and is situated within the country’s heavily populated Tricity region that also includes Gdynia and Sopot. Like other major urban areas, this metropolitan region faces substantial environmental difficulties. The primary concerns are around the problem of air pollution, which often exceeds permitted levels. This issue can be attributed to coal-fired heating systems and reliance on individual transportation (Czechowski et al. 2022; Nidzgorska-Lencewicz and Czarnecka 2015). The issue of waste management also continues to be a complex challenge, as approximately 65% of municipal waste remains unsorted, even in light of the use of a new separation system (BIP 2022). The physical location of Gdańsk, close to significant ports and the Gulf of Gdańsk, contributes to its environmental influence (Rześny-Cieplińska, Szmelter-Jarosz, and Moslem 2021). The socio-political development in Poland after the 1990s is associated with the principle of subsidiarity in environmental policy and it resulted in a transfer of more extensive duties for environmental protection to local governments (Deszczka-Tarnowska and Wąsowicz 2016; Zbigniew and Kassenberg 2019). A consequence of this devolution is that Gdańsk has emerged as a leading Polish city in fostering residents participation in environmental governance in recent years, achieved through the establishment of residents’ assemblies (City of Gdańsk 2017), a pioneering approach that has gained recognition and adoption by several other cities in the country (Warsaw Climate Panel 2022).

Valuation of environmental benefits

The analysis proceeds by providing an in-depth examination of the environmental benefits exerted by the selected pro-environmental actions. Empirical findings from scholarly sources will substantiate the direct environmental outcomes of each action. Drawing on the concept of ecosystem services and their provision to local communities (Sangha et al. 2024), this study evaluated the environmental benefits, which are associated with each selected pro-environmental action. The results are synthesized and presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Environmental valuation of pro-environmental actions.

		Environmental benefits
No.	Actions	MCC	CCA	AQE	BC	NRC	Total environmental valuation
1	Walking, cycling	X	–	X	–	X	3
2	Public transport	X	–	X	–	X	3
3	Cleaning beach, park	X	–	X	X	–	3
4	Rainwater retention	–	X	–	X	–	2
5	Permeable surface retrofitting	–	X	–	X	–	2
6	Creating green urban habitats	–	X	X	X	–	3
7	Create green walls or green roofs	–	X	X	X	–	3
8	Delivery of segregated waste	X	–	X	–	X	3
9	Visiting repair shops/workshops	–	–	–	–	X	1

Walking and cycling

Walking and cycling play a significant role in MCC by avoiding the release of GHGs (Mizdrak et al. 2020). In contrast to motorized transportation, active transportation does not generate pollutant emissions (Keall et al. 2018) and contributes to the AQE by mitigating air pollution (Milovanoff et al. 2021). Ultimately, adopting walking and cycling practices significantly contributes to NRC, thereby ameliorating the necessity for road-infrastructure development (Krizek, Handy, and Forsyth 2009).

Using public transportation

Public transportation is crucial in pursuing sustainable transportation options in urban congestion contexts (Mulalic and Rouwendal 2020). The increased occupancy rates lead to a decrease in emissions per passenger-kilometer. The transition toward electrification in the public transportation industry is also advantageous, mitigating air pollution and reducing the discharge of pollutants (Bhat and Farzaneh 2022). According to Huck et al. (2021), the integration of public transportation into urban infrastructures might enhance resilience in the context of CCA.

Cleaning public spaces

AQE is improved by reducing dust, which harms individuals (Zhao, Allen, and Thomson 2021). BC is helped by preventing litter from contaminating waterways and avoiding water pollution (Hostetler, Allen, and Meurk 2011). Soil contamination is reduced, decreasing the accumulation of heavy metals (Heckert and Kondo 2018). Less direct, aesthetic enhancements in public spaces encourage community involvement in outdoor activities (De Molli, Mengis, and van Marrewijk 2020), reducing reliance on energy-intensive indoor activities and supporting MCC.

Rainwater retention

Rainwater retention can help MCC by reducing energy-intensive water treatment and associated carbon emissions. It is also a resilient solution to water scarcity for CCA (Freni and Liuzzo 2019). Additionally, rainwater retention aids in BC by preserving aquatic biodiversity threatened by urban stormwater runoff (Bradley et al. 2023). Finally, it promotes NRC by encouraging more efficient use of water resources, thus shifting reliance away from nonrenewable groundwater sources (Tee et al. 2017).

Permeable surface retrofitting

The implementation of permeable pavements contributes to the improvement of a city’s capacity to contribute to CCA. The mitigation of hazards related to extreme events is reduced by the implementation of effective water-management strategies, especially in periods of intense precipitation (Mei et al. 2018). Simultaneously, the potential revitalization of urban green areas via decreased soil sealing may indirectly impact BC. The selection of pavement can influence soil health, which in turn may have implications for plant vigor and the capacity to enhance biodiversity in urban settings (Song et al. 2022).

Creating green urban habitats

Incorporating green spaces in urban areas enhances urban resilience in the context of CCA (Gill et al. 2007). Concurrently, it is imperative to acknowledge their significance in the context of AQE since they play a pivotal role in substantially improving urban air quality through the mitigation of pollutants (Shen and Lung 2017). Furthermore, the establishment of pocket parks and micro-gardens plays a significant role not only in adaptation to the adverse effects of climate change (Rosso et al. 2022) but also in the conservation of biodiversity, serving as sanctuaries for a wide range of species, and strengthening the ecological integrity of urban areas (Song et al. 2022).

Creating green walls or green roofs

Green roofs and walls are integral to a comprehensive green infrastructure strategy addressing CCA. These measures are crucial in minimizing urban heat-island effects (Zhu et al. 2021). In air quality, these instruments are crucial in reducing air pollutants and particulate matter (Ghazalli et al. 2019). Moreover, integrating these green elements within urban environments can strengthen biodiversity (Coulibaly et al. 2023).

Delivery of segregated waste

Segregating household waste plays a crucial part in MCC as it significantly reduces GHG production to a significant extent (Korkut et al. 2018). In addition, efficient waste management contributes to notable enhancements in air quality (Wang and Shi 2022), resulting in a reduction of nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions. Finally, the NRC emerges as an additional crucial advantage. Recycling segregated trash reduces the need for raw materials, resulting in decreased emissions and substantial cost savings (Cesario et al. 2020).

Visiting repair shops/workshops

Recycling materials and reusing goods minimize reliance on finite resources, such as limited rare earth materials (André, Ljunggren Söderman, and Nordelöf 2019). The clothing sector similarly adheres to this notion since recycling garments diminishes the need for fresh raw materials and effectively preserves valuable resources (Virgens, Silva, and Laranjeira 2022).

Community-value assessment

This section explores the practical implementation of the AHP to determine the ranking of pro-environmental actions as evaluated by local stakeholders. In assessing these activities, stakeholders considered their direct environmental benefits, as revealed in Table 1, and how they resonate with community values and individual engagement.

Stakeholders assessed the importance of each action individually, utilizing a 1–9 scale, by conducting pairwise comparisons. This particular step played a pivotal role in capturing intricate perceptions regarding the environmental impact of each action and its alignment with the stakeholders’ ambitions for reaching sustainability on a local level. The following meeting enabled deliberations on contrasting viewpoints, intending to achieve a consensus on the order of the importance of actions. The deliberative process facilitated the assembly of individual judgments into a cohesive evaluation and the final pairwise comparison judgments were synthesized into a normalized comparison matrix. Eigenvector calculations were performed to derive ratio scale priority weights. Methodological rigor was checked by calculating the consistency index and consistency ratio, ensuring it was below the acceptable threshold (CI = 0.14 and CR = 0.1) (Saaty 2005).

The resulting weights reflect the relative contribution of each action toward overall environmental impact based on the cumulative judgments across all criteria. For instance, creating green habitats received the highest weight of 22%, underscoring its comprehensive benefits with respect to engagement, community value, and environmental impact dimensions. Similarly, actions such as walking and cycling (17%), permeable surface retrofitting (12%), and delivery of segregated waste (10%) were evaluated for their substantial contributions to MCC and resource conservation, illustrating the balanced consideration of various sustainability factors. The consistency, robustness, and transparency of the AHP process were validated. Figure 2 exhibits the final weights resulting from the AHP method employed with the representatives of the local stakeholders.

Figure 2. Weights expressed by the local stakeholders.

Engagement-intensity evaluation

This section quantifies the physical effort required to execute pro-environmental actions, utilizing the MET as a standardized measure. The MET scale facilitates the differentiation between moderate and vigorous levels of activity intensity – activities associated with MET values ranging from 3 to 6 are classified as moderate. In contrast, those exceeding 6 MET are considered vigorous (Ainsworth et al. 2011).

Each action in Table 2 was cross-referenced with physical activities from the Compendium of Physical Activities (Ainsworth et al. 2011). When exact matches were not found, the closest analogs were selected and rationalized based on context-specific adjustments to ensure a strong match with our target actions. For instance, the “Cleaning beach, park” action was aligned with the “House or cabin cleaning” physical activity from the Compendium due to similar movement patterns and effort levels. For each action in Table 2, corresponding MET values are specified alongside the calculated energy expenditure, employing the methodology established by Jetté, Sidney, and Blümchen (1990).

Table 2. Energy expenditure for pro-environmental actions.

No.	Pro-environmental actions	Associated specific activity	METs (kcal/(kg*h))	Energy expenditure (kcal/minute)
1a	Walking	Moderate walking (3.0 mph)	4.5	5.91
1b	Cycling	Leisurely bicycling or commuting	4	5.25
2	Public transport	Riding in a bus	1.3	1.71
3	Cleaning beach, park	House or cabin cleaning	3.3	4.33
4	Rainwater retention	Outdoor construction/remodeling	4	5.25
5	Permeable surface retrofitting	Vigorous manual labor	6.5	8.53
6	Creating green urban habitats	Moderate manual labor	4.5	5.91
7	Create green walls or green roofs	Moderate manual labor	4.5	5.91
8	Delivery of segregated waste	Light general cleaning	2.5	3.28
9	Visiting repair shops/workshops	Shopping (standing/walking, with or without cart)	2.3	3.02

The MET values range from 1.3 for riding a bus to 6.5 for permeable surface retrofitting, highlighting the significant variability in physical effort required across different pro-environmental actions. Also, it is worth noting that the energy expenditure column represents a simplified measure of individual engagement effort in a pro-environmental action and takes into account a standard individual, disregarding the differences in weight and exercise tolerance (Jetté, Sidney, and Blümchen 1990).

Assessing reward values

Following the comprehensive methodology, Table 3 showcases the normalized reward values for each pro-environmental action, reflecting the cumulative contribution of stakeholder ratings, energy expenditure, and environmental benefits.

Table 3. Normalized rewards for pro-environmental actions.

No.	Pro-environmental actions	Stakeholder rating (%)	Energy expenditure (kcal/min)	Environmental benefits (#)	Normalized reward values
1a	Walking	17	5.91	3	0.169
1b	Cycling	17	5.25	3	0.151
2	Public transport	3	1.71	3	0.009
3	Cleaning beach, park	5	4.33	3	0.037
4	Rainwater retention	6	5.25	2	0.035
5	Permeable surface retrofitting	12	8.53	2	0.115
6	Creating green urban habitats	22	5.91	3	0.212
7	Create green walls or green roofs	20	5.91	3	0.199
8	Delivery of segregated waste	10	3.28	3	0.056
9	Visiting repair shops/workshops	5	3.02	1	0.009
Total					1

Notably, creating green urban habitats and implementing green walls or green roofs emerge as the actions with the highest normalized reward values, at 0.288 and 0.260, respectively. These results underscore the significant stakeholder emphasis on actions that contribute significantly to urban biodiversity and climate resilience.

In contrast, actions such as visiting repair shops/workshops and rainwater retention are each assigned lower normalized reward values of 0.011. Although these actions play a crucial role in advancing sustainable practices, such as waste reduction and water conservation, they are often associated with reduced effort or are perceived by stakeholders as having a relatively minor immediate effect on the urban environmental landscape.

Discussion

Theoretical implications

This study elucidates the interplay between individual engagement effort, community values, and environmental impact within an integrated framework that enhances the theoretical understanding of pro-environmental behaviors. Our multidimensional methodology addresses a significant gap identified by Kautish and Sharma (2020), who noted the scarcity of comprehensive approaches to understanding the multifaceted nature of pro-environmental actions. The theoretical landscape is enriched, and a more granular understanding of how different contextual dimensions collectively influence the reward amount for pro-environmental behaviors is provided.

In answering RQ1, this study establishes a method to assess the value of pro-environmental actions, ensuring these activities are recognized for the individual effort required, their alignment with community values and priorities, and their environmental benefits. This methodological contribution extends beyond existing models focused on non-monetary and social rewards for pro-environmental behaviors (Ghesla et al. 2020; Nguyen-Van, Stenger, and Tiet 2021), incorporating the influential role of stakeholders (Caleman, Monteiro, and Hendrikse 2017; He et al. 2019; Taylor et al. 2021), and the direct environmental benefits (André, Ljunggren Söderman, and Nordelöf 2019; Korkut et al. 2018). Crucially, this study proposes a new framework using MET rates to measure rewards for pro-environmental behavior. As metabolic expenditure has been preponderantly used in medical studies (Deyaert et al. 2017; Toledo-Vargas et al. 2020), this study offers a more personalized and equitable system tailored to the physical effort expended by individuals, promoting both health and ecological benefits.

The versatility of our methodology in assessing and incentivizing pro-environmental actions across different geographical and socio-economic settings, as demonstrated in the case study of Gdańsk, further responds to RQ2. This methodology expands the findings of Zawieska et al. (2022) and provides the appropriate knowledge and tools for any local context, demonstrating adaptability to diverse urban settings worldwide.

Addressing RQ3, this study describes a theoretical framework that explains the potential impact of strategies on providing rewards for urban residents engaging in sustainable behaviors. This study provides the necessary methodological layer to current studies on the Polish context that conceptualized the digital framework for rewards for pro-environmental behavior (Radziszewski et al. 2021; Zawieska et al. 2022). In addition, our work adds the decision-making dimension, bringing the methodology closer to being put into practice. Therefore, advancing governance frameworks encompassing comprehensive sustainability dimensions and facilitating a deeper integration of environmental policies with behavioral science and urban planning is critical.

Practical implications

The methodology employed in this study prioritizes the perspectives of local communities in order to address the complexities of urban planning and the diverse socio-economic challenges cities face globally. This tailored approach to environmental policy-making aligns with RQ1 and ensures that pro-environmental actions are recognized for their effort, community alignment, and environmental benefits. By focusing on specific pro-environmental actions, this methodology offers a practical response to the need for location-specific solutions, emphasizing the importance of creating sustainable urban development strategies tailored to the unique environmental and social fabric of each community (Miller et al. 2022).

Furthermore, the adaptability of the methodology to different urban contexts, as demonstrated by the Gdańsk case study, directly addresses RQ2, highlighting the potential for scalable solutions in urban sustainability efforts. This adaptability is crucial for cities globally to implement flexible and impactful sustainability strategies, responding to diverse land-use patterns, socio-economic challenges, and environmental issues. The involvement of stakeholders from various sectors underscores the importance of collaborative approaches in formulating and implementing environmental policies (Caleman, Monteiro, and Hendrikse 2017; He et al. 2019). It also illustrates a practical application of intersectoral collaboration that is essential in crafting holistic and practical sustainability strategies.

However, implementing such a comprehensive strategy presents challenges, such as maintaining sustained user engagement and ensuring activity-tracking accuracy (Ghesla et al. 2020; Lange and Dewitte 2019; Nguyen-Van, Stenger, and Tiet 2021). These practical concerns, consistent with RQ3, necessitate targeted public awareness campaigns, the deployment of user-friendly digital tools, and continuous evaluation and adjustment of incentive mechanisms. This proactive approach ensures the initiative’s relevance, effectiveness, and adaptability over time, providing a practical framework for integrating careful sustainability considerations into governance frameworks.

Moreover, while this study focuses on the Polish context, the methodology’s design anticipates its applicability in diverse geographical and socio-economic settings. This potential speaks to the need for innovative solutions that transcend local boundaries, offering a blueprint for urban sustainability that is both versatile and impactful. This underscores the practical implications of RQ2 by demonstrating the methodology’s effectiveness in a specific urban setting and its potential transferability and adaptability to other regions.

Limitations and future research

The limitations of this methodology, while robust and innovative, necessitate careful consideration for future research. One such consideration pertains to the potential issue of scalability and generalizability across different cultural or urban contexts. Although diverse, the stakeholder group involved in this study was a relatively limited sample of the local community, which led to a skewed distribution of weights for pro-environmental actions. This limitation suggests that the prioritization of actions might only partially encapsulate some community needs or values, underscoring the importance of involving a broader and more representative stakeholder group in future studies.

Moreover, the quantification of environmental benefits in this study was oriented by existing literature, serving as a preliminary guide rather than an exhaustive assessment of impacts. While this approach provides a necessary starting point, it also highlights the need for more dynamic and context-specific evaluations of environmental benefits, tailored to the unique ecological and social characteristics of each urban setting.

In addition, while using MET values introduces a novel and tangible metric for assessing pro-environmental actions, there is room for refinement. The assumption that MET values may be directly applied to pro-environmental behaviors assumes a certain level of similarity, which may not adequately consider the subtle variations in effort and impact among different actions. Future research should aim to fine tune these values, ensuring a more accurate reflection of the physical effort involved in pro-environmental actions and the corresponding rewards.

Despite these limitations, our study opens several avenues for future research. Pilot studies are encouraged to test the derived methodologies from this framework, particularly with the support of digital technologies and mobile applications. Such tools could enhance the tracking of pro-environmental actions, facilitating the allocation of more relevant and equitable incentives for individuals. Given the diverse, but limited pro-environmental actions considered in this study, future research might benefit from focusing on a narrower selection of actions. These actions should be particularly relevant to the local specificities of the case studies and involve a broader and more varied representation of local stakeholders. This approach could yield a more representative weight distribution, leading to more meaningful and impactful rewards.

Conclusions

This study established a novel framework integrating individual engagement, community values, and environmental benefits to thoroughly evaluate pro-environmental actions in urban environments. Our study transcends previous research by utilizing a multidimensional method and integrating the MET values. This approach allows us to measure and reward individual endeavors toward sustainability in a concrete manner. This approach aligns with the values supported by the community and emphasizes activities with substantial environmental benefits. It presents a more equitable system of rewards that has the potential for widespread adoption.

The case study of Gdańsk exemplifies the adaptability of the concept across various urban settings, underscoring the potential of participatory government and locally tailored and rewarded initiatives in fostering sustainable urban ecosystems. The focus of this study is to directly tackle crucial questions, establishing a blueprint for future sustainability governance.

While recognizing the limitations regarding scalability, stakeholder representation, and the accurate measurement of environmental benefits and the MET values, these variables present possibilities for further enhancement. This encompasses more extensive stakeholder involvement, improved benefits evaluations, and additional fine-tuning of the MET values.

This study contributes to understanding urban sustainability and presents a complete and flexible framework for evaluating and motivating pro-­environmental behaviors. It establishes the foundation for future advancements in urban sustainability, promoting a more involved and environmentally friendly global urban community.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Funding

This study is supported by the Greencoin Project, which benefits from a grant from Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway through the EEA Grants and the Polish Budgetary Funds provided by the IdeaLab Program (NOR/IdeaLab/GC/0003/2020-00).

Notes

1 See  https://unfccc.int/climate-action/momentum-for-change/activity-database/low-carbon-rewards-programme.