Application of bacterial cellulose in dietary fiber-enriched castella cake production

ABSTRACT

In this study, bacterial cellulose (BC) was used as a partial replacement for baking wheat flour in the traditional castella cake recipe to increase the fiber content. The wheat flour content was partially replaced (5, 10, 15, and 20%) with BC powder (BCP) in the castella cake recipe, while 0% replacement was used as the control sample. The fiber-enriched castella cake’s physical texture, chemical composition, and sensory properties were analyzed. With up to 20% incorporated BC, the castella cakes had their density and total dietary fiber content increased by 1.72 and 3.57 times, respectively, compared to the control samples. Among the samples, the sensory evaluation showed that the 5 and 10% BC replaced fiber-enriched castella cakes were favored by consumers. The total dietary fiber content of 10% BC replaced fiber-enriched castella cake was 5.83 ± 0.31%db; thus, this ratio was recommended in a castella cake recipe.

KEYWORDS:

• Bacterial cellulose
• sponge cake
• castella cake
• dietary fiber
• wheat flour

1. Introduction

Castella is a sponge cake originated in Taiwan and has gained popularity worldwide due to its distinctive pillowy, Soufflé-like texture, rich aroma, and slightly sweet taste. Sponge cakes have a long shelf life in comparison with their other desserts. Sponge cakes are predicted to be the most rapid-increasing product segment, with a growing compound annual growth rate of 3.7% between 2020 and 2027 (https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/cakes-market). Traditional castella cakes are made with whole milk, eggs, butter, sugar, and flour; thus, they have high calories while containing little dietary fiber (K.-P. Kim et al., 2016). Therefore, adding fiber to castella cakes is necessary to improve their nutritional value.

Dietary fiber is the eating part of plants or analogous carbohydrates that resist absorption and digestion in the small intestine with complete or partial fermentation in the large intestine (J. Slavin, 2003). Increasing dietary fiber intake reduces the risk of stroke, hypertension, diabetes, coronary heart disease, obesity, blood pressure, and serum cholesterol levels (Anderson et al., 2009). Consistent evidence suggests that people on a higher-fiber diet have increased satiety and reduced energy intake compared to those on a regular diet (Howarth et al., 2001). Dietary fiber in fruits, vegetables, legumes, and high-fiber grain products is classified into soluble and insoluble forms. Depending on fiber properties, foods can have different textures and stability during transportation and storage (Huang & Yang, 2019; J. L. Slavin, 2005).

In contemplation of meeting the demand for a healthier and calorie-dense sponge cake, various dietary fiber sources were used to partially or entirely replace wheat flour in the sponge cake recipe. A 10% partial substitution of wheat flour with mango pulp had its sensory properties unchanged compared with the control sample, while total fiber content increased to 14% (Noor Aziah et al., 2011). The baking wheat flour, partially replaced by Terebinth, is rich in fatty acids, polyphenols, and tocopherol. The total dietary fiber content of the replaced recipe increased to 13.95% compared with 0.86% of the control (Köten, 2021). Eucheuma powder was also used in wheat flour replacement, which increased the total fiber content of the sponge cake from 1.46 ± 0.19% as the control sample to 6.67 as the cake sample with 15% of Eucheuma powder replacement. On the other hand, 10% of Eucheuma powder replacement was rated as an adequate sensory evaluation (Huang & Yang, 2019).

Nata de coco is also called bacterial cellulose (BC), a widely popular food processing product originated in the Philippines. The production of nata de coco involves the fermentation of coconut water by Acetobacter xylinum (Makhlof et al., 2011). The main component of nata de coco is bacterial cellulose with high purity, free of lignin, arabinan, or pectin (Shi et al., 2014). Although BC is popularly used as a traditional food source in Asia countries, such as Philippines, Vietnam, and Indonesia, it is considered a non-conventional ingredient in several nations, such as the U.S.A and the UK. In these nations, the safety of BC is evaluated by international regulatory organizations such as Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). BC is required to pass the standard of these organizations before it can conjugate to receive market approval (Dourado et al., 2017). BC has high tensile strength and favorable properties that can be used in various products, such as food, cosmetics, paper making, and optics (Shi et al., 2014). In the food industry, BC acts as a stabilizer, gelling, and thickening agent to maintain food quality over the pH and temperature changes of the external environment (Okiyama et al., 1993). Lin et al. produced the lower calorie meatball by adding 10% BC showing similar attributes to the control meatball regarding sensory evaluation and stability (K. W. Lin & Lin, 2004). Okiyama et al. discovered that BC could enhance the strength of fragile food hydrogels. Adding BC can promote the sensory evaluation of Tofu by reducing its stickiness and strengthening its texture. Furthermore, BC addition into Kamaboko can enhance the springiness and sensory attributes due to better withstanding during the aging process of products (D. Lin et al., 2020). However, there are no reports about adding bacterial cellulose into cereal-based products like castella cakes and cookies.

In this paper, bacterial cellulose was pretreated into powder as a partial replacement for wheat flour to produce high-dietary fiber castella cakes. The volume, the texture profile analysis, and the crumb color of castella cakes were conducted to investigate the effects of the innovative recipe. The moisture, ash, and dietary fiber contents were quantified, and sensory evaluation was performed to show consumers’ acceptability.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Materials

Nata de coco was acquired from Viettin Mart company, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, and washed with clean water to remove the acetic acid residue. The washing process was completed when bacterial cellulose pH, measured by the litmus test, reached 7. Then, washed BC was dried in a cabinet dryer at 115°C for 24 hours to achieve a moisture content of 5%. Dried BC was pulverized in a grinder and sieved through a 40-mesh sieve to attain bacterial cellulose powder (BCP). The wheat flour was purchased from Meizan (FFM Berhad, Malaysia); The isomalt (Cybor Ingredients Ltd., Australia) and cream of tartar (Food Innovation Ltd., United Kingdom), sucralose, acesulfame K were bought from Anhui Jinhe Industrial Co.; The eggs from Ba Huan Company, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, milk from Vinamilk, Binh Duong, Vietnam, butter from Anchor, New Zealand.

2.2. Chemical and physical analysis

The AOAC procedures were used to determine the chemical compounds of BCP and the castella cake, including the moisture (AOAC 930.15), protein (AOAC 984.13), fat (AOAC 960.39), starch (AOAC 920.40), and ash content (AOAC 942.05) (Ben Jeddou et al., 2017; J. H. Kim et al., 2012; Thiex et al., 2019), and the gravimetric enzymatic method (AOAC 991.42) was used to determine total dietary fiber (TDF), insoluble dietary fiber (IDF), and soluble dietary fiber (SDF) (McCleary et al., 2019). The carbohydrate content of BCP or the castella cake was the difference between a hundred percent and the sum of protein, ash, and fat contents (Haque et al., 2002). The chemical composition was expressed as the percentage per gram of dried base (%db). The water-holding capacity of BCP was determined by the method of Mao et al. (2014).

2.3. Preparation of castella cake

Table 1 displayed the control and dietary fiber-enriched castella cake recipe at four substitution levels of BCP. After thoroughly mixing the 10 g isomalt, 125 g of egg yolk, 50 g butter, and 115 ml milk by a hand mixer (HDE-1852, Elmich, Germany) at 200 rpm for 1 min, the shifted flour (or BCP and flour) was added separately and homogenized by the hand mixer at 200 rpm until well mixed. Besides, the mixture of 150 g of egg white and 65 g of isomalt, 1.42 g of cream of tartar, 0.25 g of sucralose, and 0.25 g of acesulfame K (2 mins, 200 rpm) was mixed by the hand mixer for 1 min at 400 rpm. After that, these two mixtures were combined. Finally, the batter was poured onto the baking tray, then placed in a water bath, and baked in the oven (Sanaki VH809S2D, Japan) at 150°C for 70 mins. The Control, BC5, BC10, BC15, and BC20 corresponded to dietary fiber-enriched castella cakes prepared with 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20% wheat flour replaced by BCP, respectively.

Table 1. Formulations of the control and dietary fiber-enriched castella cakes.

Sample	BCP (g)	Flour (g)
Control	0	115
BC 5	5.75	109.25
BC 10	11.5	103.5
BC 15	17.25	97.75
BC 20	23	92

2.4. Volume, weight, baking loss, and crumb color analysis of castella cakes

The cake volume was measured immediately after cooling. The volume of the weighed cake was measured using sugar displacement, filling a box of known volume with sugar. The volume of sugar displaced when the cake was placed in the box was equal to the volume of the cake. The baking loss was measured by the weight difference between the batter and the baked castella cake (Noorlaila et al., 2020). The density was calculated by dividing the sample mass by the volume. CM-5 spectrophotometer (Konica Minolta Holdings, Inc., Tokyo, Japan) was employed to quantify the color of the cake crumb. Lightness, redness/greenness, and yellowness/blueness represented the color parameters L*, a*, and b*, respectively (Huang & Yang, 2019). As a reference, plastic cling wrap was used.

2.5. Texture profile analysis of castella cakes

A TA-XT2i texture analyzer measured the parameters 1 hour after baking (Stable Micro System Ltd., Surrey, UK). Cubes (40 × 40 × 20 mm3) were cut from the samples. A 36 mm aluminum cylinder probe (P/35, Stable Micro System Ltd.) was used to perform a twofold compression test (Sow et al., 2019). The following settings were used in the compression test: pre-test speed = 5 mm/s, test speed = 1 mm/s, and post-test speed = 1 mm/s. The compression distance was 10 millimeters. Hardness, cohesiveness, springiness, resilience, and chewiness were the textural parameters measured and estimated using the equipment’s curves.

2.6. Sensory evaluation

Sixty untrained panelists (21–38 years old) participated in a sensory test at room temperature (approximately 25°C). The samples were cut into 2 × 2×2 cm3 cubes and placed in covered sensory cups. Random three-digit numbers were used to code the cups (Huang & Yang, 2019). Five samples consisting of control, BCP5, BCP10, BCP15, and BCP20 with five different coded digit numbers were simultaneously given to each panelist, and the total number of samples for the sensory test was 300. During the assessment, water was supplied to clean the palate. On a 9-point hedonic scale (9 = like immensely, 4 = neither like nor dislike, 1 = dislike highly), the acceptability of the samples was assessed based on their overall quality (J. H. Kim et al., 2012).

2.7. Statistical analysis

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was calculated using Minitab 19 (Minitab, LLC, U.S.A) to determine significant differences between treated samples. The results were exhibited as the mean ± standard deviation. Differences were considered significant at 95% (p < .05).

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Physical and chemical characterization of BCP and wheat flour

The chemical composition of BCP and its comparison with wheat flour were assayed; the results are summarized in Table 2. The highest composition of BCP and wheat flour was carbohydrates, 85.18 and 88.31%, respectively. However, the main component accounting for carbohydrates of BCP was TDF (65.29%), while wheat flour was starch (66.88%). The IDF and SDF contents of BCP were significantly higher than those of wheat flour by 39.02 and 1.92 times. Cellulose chains structured BCP without lignin and hemicellulose content; thus, cellulose was considered the primary dietary fiber. BCP also had a high degree of crystallinity composed of two crystalline regions, cellulose Iα and Iβ, which could affect the hardness and sensory quality of castella cakes (Park et al., 2009). The effect of cellulose crystallinity on the hardness of cereal-based products was presented in our previous study, which used defatted copra meal as a wheat flour replacer in cookies (Vo et al., 2022). BCP could be incorporated into castella cakes to produce enriched-fiber products due to the high content of TDF.

Table 2. The physical and chemical composition of BCP and wheat flour.

Criteria	BCP	Wheat flour
Moisture content (%)	7.63 ± 0.14	13.91 ± 0.54
Protein %db	13.54 ± 0.51	9.57 ± 0.08
Lipid %db	Not detection	1.58 ± 0.23
Ash %db	1.28 ± 0.02	0.54 ± 0.06
Starch %db	Not detection	66.88 ± 0.43
Total dietary fiber (TDF) %db	65.29 ± 1.49	2.16 ± 0.21
Insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) %db	64.29 ± 1.52	1.64 ± 0.12
Soluble dietary fiber (SDF) %db	1,00 ± 0.02	0.52 ± 0.09
IDF/SDF ratio	64.65 ± 3.02	3.15 ± 0.33
Total carbohydrate %db	85.18 ± 0.74	88.31 ± 0.29
Water holding capacity (WHC) (g of water/g of powder)	1.03 ± 0.05	0.80 ± 0.07

3.2. Chemical characterization of cake with different formulations

The changes in the chemical composition of castella cakes with the different replacement ratios of wheat flour by BCP are summarized in Table 3. By replacing wheat flour with BCP, there was an increase in protein and ash contents of castella cakes, while moisture, starch, and total carbohydrate contents decreased compared to the control sample. Specifically, there were an increase of 1.60 and 1.02 times in protein and ash contents of castella cakes, respectively, compared to the control sample. However, the castella cakes starch and total carbohydrate contents dropped by 1.60 and 1.58 times compared to the control sample. It could be attributed to the distinction between the chemical compounds of BCP and wheat flour. This trend agreed with Thi Chuyen Cao et al. that used defatted rice bran as a rich fiber substitute for wheat flour in the cookie formula (Cao et al., 2022). Moreover, the moisture content of 20% BC-incorporated castella cakes declined by 1.15 times compared to the control sample due to the water absorption of the cellulose chains in BCP (Ng et al., 2017). There was a fluctuation in the lipid content of castella cakes from 22.20 to 25.63%. The rise in ash, protein, IDF, TDF, and SDF contents can improve the nutritional values of castella cakes.

Table 3. The chemical composition of dietary fiber-enriched castella cakes with different levels of BCP.

Sample	Control	BC5	BC10	BC15	BC20
Moisture content %	51.20 ± 1.70^a	47.70 ± 0.97^b	45.65 ± 1.47^bc	45.40 ± 1.09^bc	44.35 ± 1.01^c
Protein %db	29.04 ± 0.91^d	30.96 ± 0.37^cd	33.39 ± 1.03^c	39.47 ± 1.31^b	46.42 ± 1.46^a
Lipid %db	23.91 ± 1.37^a	24.86 ± 1.04^ab	22.20 ± 0.87^ab	25.63 ± 1.43^ab	23.04 ± 1.46^b
Ash %db	1.79 ± 0.04^a	1.80 ± 0.04^a	1.80 ± 0.06^a	1.80 ± 0.03^a	1.82 ± 0.05^a
Starch %db	27.59 ± 1.19^a	25.31 ± 0.92^a	20.70 ± 1.01^b	19.01 ± 0.83^bc	17.25 ± 0.74^c
Total dietary fiber (TDF) %db	2.61 ± 0.14^e	3.86 ± 0.20^d	5.83 ± 0.31^c	7.65 ± 0.22^b	9.33 ± 0.20^a
Insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) %db	2.47 ± 0.13^e	3.66 ± 0.19^d	5.53 ± 0.30^c	7.34 ± 0.22^b	9.00 ± 0.21^a
Soluble dietary fiber (SDF) %db	0.14 ± 0.005^d	0.20 ± 0.01^c	0.30 ± 0.01^b	0.31 ± 0.1^ab	0.33 ± 0.01^a
IDF/SDF ratio	17.65 ± 0.37^c	18.40 ± 0.22^c	18.31 ± 0.47^c	23.51 ± 0.08^b	27.65 ± 1.40^a
Total carbohydrate %db	45.28 ± 2.31^a	42.41 ± 0.68^a	42.64 ± 0.14^a	33.13 ± 0.12^b	28.72 ± 2.86^c

The superscript letters illustrate the significant statistical difference within a line (p < .05).

The TDF, IDF, and SDF contents of castella cakes were more significant, in the following order, 3.57, 3.64, and 2.33 times more than the control sample. It could be ascribed to the initially higher level of dietary fiber in BCP than in wheat flour. Food containing at least 3%db of TDF contents was considered a source of dietary fiber. Food products with a higher TDF content of 6%db were recommended for high dietary fiber food (Foschia et al., 2015). Enriched-fiber products could have various benefits for health, such as lowering cholesterol index, improving the proliferation of gut microbes, and reducing the obesity incident (Huang & Yang, 2019). The TDF content of castella cakes should be higher than 6% to meet the standards of high dietary fiber food. Therefore, incorporating BCP from 10 to 20% was deemed suitable for producing fiber-enriched castella cakes.

3.3. Texture profile analysis of cake with different formulations

The influence of incorporating the different levels of BCP into castella cakes on TPA was investigated and shown in Table 4. The hardness was referred to the composite pattern of protein aggregates, sugar, and lipid-filled starch spheres. The hardness measurement showed that added-BCP castella cakes were higher than the control sample and peaked in the BC10 sample. It could be explained that the nano-fibril structure of BCP was inserted into the gluten matrix and starch of castella cakes during batter preparation (Zheng & Li, 2018). Castella cake density increased, leading to rising hardness (Salehi et al., 2016). This result confirmed the previous findings of Lu et al. (2010). However, the hardness of castella cakes with 20% incorporated BCP was reduced by 1.2 times compared to BC10, and the results had an opposite trend with the finding of Min Huang et al. using Eucheuma powder added to sponge cake (Huang & Yang, 2019). It could be attributed to the IDF of BCP hindering the interaction of starch and water as well as restricting the formation of hydrogen bonds between water and hydrophilic substances, such as protein. These phenomena could cause the separated structure of batter during mixing, decreasing the hardness of castella cakes (Jia et al., 2020). Chewiness has defined the energy needed to change a sponge cake into a swallowed state. The results of castella cake chewiness had a similar trend with the hardness, in which the data also peaked at the BCP10 sample (Table 4).

Table 4. The physical properties and texture profile analysis of dietary fiber-enriched castella cakes with different levels of BCP.

Sample	Control	BC5	BC10	BC15	BC20
Cakes
Weight (g)	50.85 ± 0.37^e	52.38 ±0.09^d	53.97 ± 0.13^c	54.96 ± 0.13^b	56.13 ± 0.21^a
Volume (cm^3)	91.00 ± 1.41^a	76.50 ± 2.12^b	67.00 ± 2.83^c	48.50 ± 2.12^d	40.50 ± 2.12^e
Density (g/cm^3)	0.56 ± 0.01^e	0.68 ± 0.02^d	0.81 ± 0.04^c	1.13 ± 0.05^b	1.39 ± 0.08^a
Baking loss (g)	15.25 ± 0.61^a	12.71 ± 0.15^ab	10.04 ± 0.22^b	8.40 ± 0.21^c	6.45 ± 0.35^c
Crumb color
L*	73.13 ± 0.31^a	65.76 ± 0.21^b	58.52 ± 0.60^c	52.24 ± 0.79^d	47.11 ± 0.51^e
a*	0.00 ± 0.12^c	0.23 ± 0.25^c	0.61 ± 0.14^c	1.57 ± 0.18^b	2.72 ± 0.15^a
b*	30.33 ± 0.51^a	27.35 ± 0.20 ^b	25.52 ± 0.46 ^c	21.91 ± 0.38 ^d	20.13 ± 0.15 ^e
TPA
Hardness (N)	15.71 ± 0.68^d	22.50 ± 0.98^bc	24.89 ± 1.27^a	23.5 ± 1.95^ab	20.40 ± 0.50^c
Springiness	0.87 ± 0.01^a	0.81 ± 0.00^c	0.82 ± 0.01^c	0.78 ± 0.01^d	0.84 ± 0.01^b
Resilience	0.38 ± 0.01^a	0.32 ± 0.01^b	0.32 ± 0.01^b	0.33 ± 0.00^b	0.32 ± 0.02^b
Cohesiveness	0.74 ± 0.00^a	0.69 ± 0.00^b	0.69 ± 0.00^b	0.68 ± 0.00^bc	0.67 ± 0.02^c
Chewiness (N)	10.09 ± 0.52^c	12.58 ± 0.50^b	14.29 ± 0.69^a	12.42 ± 1.24^b	11.7 ± 0.55^b

The superscript letters illustrate the significant statistical difference within a line (p < .05).

The cohesiveness determined the intermolecular forces needed to construct a sample, representing the interaction strength between elements. Cohesiveness also represented sample durability and preserved its integrity. The cohesiveness decreased with a higher level of BCP contained in the dietary fiber-enriched castella cake. This result reached a consensus with Huang and Yang (2019). It could be explained that the high replacement ratio of BCP decreased the gluten contents of the batter, thus reducing the amount of internal binding force and weakening gluten networks. The cellulose chains of BCP could also prevent the formation of a protein-starch complex in the batter during the mixing process. These effects could combine to decrease the cohesiveness of the batter (Cleary & Brennan, 2006; Foschia et al., 2015).

The springiness quantified the elasticity of castella cakes by measuring the ratio of first and second compression, indicating the fresh and aerated end-products (Matos et al., 2014). The springiness of the dietary fiber-enriched castella cakes experienced a downward trend, whereas the resilience remained unchanged. These results were opposite with Huang and Yang (2019). The springiness of the dietary fiber-enriched castella cakes could be determined by the porosity, which was probably related to reducing air incorporation during mixing. The high replacement ratio of BC could reduce the content of gliadin (a type of wheat flour protein), which played an essential role in the air-liquid interface in the batter (Pycarelle & Delcour, 2021). As a result, the surface activity of protein systems could decrease, increasing the surface tension between the liquid and gas phases and hindering the air incorporation into batters (Yazici & Ozer, 2021). BCP could replace up to 10% of the wheat flour to achieve its suitable replacement ratio.

3.4. Physical properties of castella cakes with different formulations

Replacing the wheat flour with BCP caused a reduction in the baking loss of dietary fiber-enriched castella cakes when added to the batter (Table 4). The baking loss could be determined by the foam system’s loss of unbound water and air bubbles (Pycarelle & Delcour, 2021). WHC could be vital in giving moisture to castella cakes, probably due to partially retaining water during baking. Due to the higher water retention of BCP than wheat flour (Table 1), dietary fiber-enriched castella cake could observe a lower unbound water content leading to less water evaporation (J. H. Kim et al., 2012).

The density of castella cakes was an essential criterion for measuring size and cake texture formation. There was a growth in the density of castella cakes with increasing the incorporation of BCP (Table 4) from 0.56 ± 0.01 to 1.39 ± 0.08. This result agreed with Huang and Yang (2019). It could be explained that BCP’s rising substitution of wheat flour reduces gluten contents, weakening the gluten network, which was responsible for retaining air cells during the baking process (Yazici & Ozer, 2021). Additionally, added BCP raised the batter’s viscosity, which could interfere with the air incorporation into the batter during whipping (J. H. Kim et al., 2012; Yazici & Ozer, 2021).

Table 4 shows the control sample’s L*, a*, and b* values and the dietary fiber-enriched castella cakes. As the concentration of BCP increased to 20%, the lightness significantly diminished by 1.55 times, and a similar trend was true in the results of the yellowness (reflected by the values of b*) of 1.51 times; however, the redness (reflected by a*) of BCP20 castella cakes increased significantly by 2.72 ± 0.15 compared to the control sample. The results indicated that a darker, redder, and yellower crumb was obtained with increased BCP substitution. These values agreed with the discovery of Thi Chuyen Cao et al. (2022). The color change of the baked dietary fiber-enriched castella cakes could result from the pigments of BCP. The ingredients and the formulation of castella cakes could affect their crumb color (Majzoobi et al., 2014; Wei et al., 2014). Additionally, BCP had more reducing oligosaccharides than wheat flour, which could enhance the Maillard reaction between carbonyl and amino moieties (Noor Aziah et al., 2011). This reaction could lead to increased darkness of incorporated-BCP castella cakes.

3.5. Sensory evaluation

The effect of incorporating BC on the sensory properties of castella cakes is expressed in Figure 1. The sensory evaluation analysis showed that the control sample had the highest score, followed by the BC10 sample in overall acceptability, whereas the BC15 and BC20 samples got the lowest scores. The scores of the control, BC5, and BC10 samples were higher than 6. On the contrary, lower overall scores for the BC15 and BC20 samples were probably due to their darker appearance and impaired texture, such as lower cohesiveness, hardness, and chewiness (Huang & Yang, 2019; Yazici & Ozer, 2021). This result reached a consensus with Huang and Yang (2019). The characteristic sensory results indicated that replacing 5% and 10% wheat flour with BCP in the castella cake recipe was satisfactory.

Figure 1. The overall acceptability of panelists for incorporated-BCP castella cakes. Different letters (A, B, C) denote significant statistical differences.

4. Conclusions

From the study, BCP was determined to be high in TDF and ash content with high WHC. By partially replacing wheat flour with BCP, the dietary fiber-enriched castella cakes have increased TDF, ash, and protein contents, while their moisture, starch, and total carbohydrate contents decreased, implying they can be considered a type of high TDF product. The substitution also significantly affected the crumb color, baking loss, and texture properties. According to the sensory evaluation, the 10% replacement ratio of BCP was satisfactory, with approximately 6.5 sensory scores. This ratio of BC was recommended for the innovative recipe to enhance the TDF content of the product (5.83 ± 0.31%db). This result motivated further studies in the BC-based dietary fiber-enriched food industry.

Regarding the originality of contribution, the partial results of the manuscripts were presented under the poster and abstract forms in the 10th Science and Technology Symposium for OISP Students (2022).

Author contributions

Tan Phat Vo: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing- Review & Editing, Formal analysis, Data curation. Hoang Khanh Linh Tran: Investigation, Writing- Original Draft. Nhat Tien Pham: Investigation, Writing- Original Draft, Formal analysis. Tri Nguyen Tran: Investigation, Writing- Original Draft, Thuy Hong Nhung Nguyen: Investigation, Writing- Original Draft. Thuy Han Phan: Investigation, Writing- Original Draft. Hyunjoo Lee: Writing- Review & Editing. Dinh Quan Nguyen: Conceptualization, Visualization, Supervision, Writing- Review & Editing.

Acknowledgments

We acknowledge Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HCMUT), VNU-HCM for supporting this study.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

This research received no external funding.