The relationship between EFL teachers’ beliefs and actual practices of classroom management

Abstract

This study aimed at analyzing Iranian EFL teachers’ beliefs toward classroom management and the relationship between teachers’ beliefs and their actual practices of classroom management in regard with individual variables such as gender, education degree, and teaching experience. The data were collected using a behavior and instructional management scale inventory and direct class observation through a researcher made classroom management observation checklist. The findings showed that EFL teachers favored interactionalist orientation on behavior and instructional management dimensions. Findings also indicated that male teachers were not significantly different from females in terms of the relationship between their beliefs and actual practices. However, there was a significant relationship between teachers’ beliefs and their actual practices of classroom management among less experienced teachers. It was further found that increase in teachers’ educational level led to decrease in discrepancy between their beliefs and actual practices.

Keywords:

• teachers beliefs
• classroom management
• Iranian EFL teachers

Public Interest Statement

In this article, we introduce the classroom management and its three dimensions called instructional, people, and behavioral management, review the literature and describe the process in which the research is done. Our study has tried to find out Iranian EFL teachers’ (227 male and female teachers in Ilam province, west of Iran) beliefs toward classroom management. The study also intended to find out whether there is any relationship between the teachers’ beliefs of classroom management and their actual practices with regard to variables such as gender, education degree, and teaching experience. The results indicated that generally speaking there is no relationship between the teachers’ beliefs and actual practices of classroom management in Iranian EFL context. However, it was found that there is only congruency between beliefs and actual practices of classroom management among less experienced and teachers with high educational degrees.

1. Introduction

Classroom management has generated much concern and is among the most frequently addressed topics for EFL teachers. This is because the role that the teachers play in classroom and the classroom management strategies they adopt have a strong potential to positively and effectively influence students achievement and learning (DeLong & Winter, 1998). Additionally, the teachers’ effectiveness in teaching is evaluated through their ability to effectively manage the classroom and create the classroom climate that is stimulating, energizing, and positive for language learning (Brown, 2007; Underwood, 1991).

In the most general terms, classroom management refers to the full range of teacher efforts to supervise classroom activities, including learning, social interaction, and student behavior (Burden, 2005; Good & Brophy, 2006). Brophy (1998) as quoted in Cakiroglu and Gencer (2007) defined classroom management as “the actions taken to create and maintain a learning environment conducive to attainment of the goals of instruction-arranging the physical environment of classroom, establishing rules and procedures, maintaining attention to lessons and engagement in academic activities” (p. 2).

Martin, Yin, and Baldwin (1998) and Martin and Sass (2010) defined classroom management with three broad and independent dimensions: instructional management, people management, and behavior management. The instructional management dimension includes activities such as establishing daily procedures, monitoring seat work, monitoring students’ independent work, and allocating materials (Martin et al., 1998). The people management is centered on how the teacher perceives the students and how they view their relationship with the students (Martin et al., 1998). The final dimension, behavior management, is somewhat similar to the concept of classroom discipline but differs in that it focuses on a teacher’s pre-planned methods of preventing misbehavior, rather than simply on their reaction to it once it occurs (Martin et al., 1998). In detail, this facet includes setting rules, providing a reward, establishing opportunities for student input, commenting on behavior, and giving directions (Martin & Sass, 2010).

Glickman and Tamashiro (1980) and Wolfgang (1995) conceptualized a framework containing a continuum to explain teacher beliefs regarding classroom management strategies. Their continuum ranged from non-interventionist at one extreme to interventionist at the other, with interactionalist midway between them. According to Martin et al. (1998), the non-interventionist teachers “presuppose the child has an inner drive that needs to find its expression in the real world” (p. 6). Teachers adhering to the non-interventionist orientation are considered student oriented (Witcher et al., 2008).

At the opposite end of the continuum are interventionist teachers, those who are considered to be teacher oriented and tend to take control of the situation by implementing an immediate disciplinary tactic to control the behavior (Witcher et al., 2008). The non-interventionist is the least directive and controlling, but the interventionist is the most controlling. According to Martin et al. (1998) midway between these two extremes, interactionalist teachers focus on “what the individual does to modify the external environment, as well as what the environment does to shape the individual” (p. 7). While it is assumed that teachers believe and act according to all three approaches, one usually predominates (Wolfgang, 1995; Wolfgang & Glickman, 1980). This study investigated Iranian EFL teachers’ perceptions of classroom management. Further, it examined the relationship between the teachers’ beliefs and practices of classroom management.

2. Review of literature

The value of classroom management for teachers has been consistently supported through research literature (Shinn, Walker, & Stoner, 2002; Wang, Haertel, & Walberg, 1993). Landau (2001) referred to classroom management strategies as “the most valuable skills set a teacher can have” (p. 4). Numerous studies have shown that beliefs toward classroom management differ among teachers and play an important role in effective instruction. Marzano and Marzano (2003) stated that effective classroom management supports effective educational achievement, and that management is an integral part of the learning process. In this regard, Esmaeeli (2002) as cited in Rahimi and Asadollahi (2012) stated that “classroom management in general and EFL classroom management in particular is one of the major concerns of pre-service and in-services teachers, especially English language teachers in Iran” (p. 3).

In a number of studies, researchers have examined the possible effects of various factors on teachers’ classroom management approaches. Martin, Yin, and Mayall (2006) in a study on the impact of teaching experiences and gender differences on teachers’ classroom management styles concluded that experienced teachers were significantly more controlling than novice teachers and female teachers were more interventionist than males regarding people and behavior management. In another study, Rahimi and Asadollahi (2012) investigated the relationship among Iranian EFL teachers’ classroom management orientations, their individual differences, and the contextual variables. They found that gender, age, experience, and school type were not significantly related to classroom management orientations. But results revealed that teachers’ education and district of school location were related to classroom management orientations. It means that teachers with higher education degree and working in less privileged areas of the city are less controlling and interventionist.

In a study conducted by Evrim, Gökçe, and Enisa (2009), beliefs of a Turkish EFL teacher on classroom management were examined. The study also investigated the similarities and differences between the teacher classroom management beliefs and actual teaching practices. The researchers utilized the Attitudes and Beliefs on Classroom Control (ABCC) inventory, a philosophy of teaching statement, and a stimulated recall session as instruments of the study for purpose of data collection. The study revealed that the teacher was interactionalist in her general beliefs regarding classroom management. It was also found that there was congruence between the teacher’s beliefs on classroom management and her actual practices in the classroom.

While some attempts have been made on assessing teachers’ perception of classroom management in Iran as an EFL context, no information is available on investigating teachers’ actual practices of classroom management and assessing discrepancies between the teachers’ beliefs and actual practices of classroom management. Accordingly, the present study intended to examine the relationship between the EFL teachers’ beliefs and actual practices of classroom management.

3. Statement of the problem

It is generally believed that teachers’ beliefs toward classroom management are highly important for understanding and improving educational process. They are closely linked to teachers’ orientation and strategies for dealing with challenges in their profession. As mentioned before, there are various studies focusing on teachers’ classroom management orientations, styles, and various strategies, but there has been little, if any, previous research examining the teachers’ actual classroom management practices, especially in EFL classes. Thus, the major purpose of the present study was to investigate the relationship between EFL teachers’ classroom management beliefs and actual practices in regard with variables such as gender, education degree, and teaching experience. We choose the sample of study from Iran as an EFL context because of our convenience and access to this context. Accordingly, the current study sought an answer to the following research questions:

(1)	What are EFL teachers’ beliefs toward classroom management?
(2)	Is there any significant relationship between EFL teachers’ classroom management beliefs and their actual practices in regard with variables such as gender, education level, and years of teaching experience?

4. Methodology

4.1. Participant

The participants of the study included 227 English teachers (110 female and 117 male) at various schools in Ilam province. The participants were selected through convenient sampling with assistance of some colleagues of the researchers. Their teaching experience ranged from 1 to 30 years of teaching in public schools and private language institutes. They were clustered into six groups on five-year intervals of teaching experience. Most teachers had either a Bachelor or a Master’s degree, with a few having an Associate or a PhD. Table 1 demonstrates the demographic information of the participants.

Table 1. Demographics of the study participants

Variables	Categories	Frequency	Percentage	Cumulative
Gender	Male	117	51.5	51.5
	Female	110	48.5	100.0
Teaching experience	1–5	15	6.6	6.6
	6–10	25	11.0	17.6
	11–15	29	12.8	30.4
	16–20	65	28.6	59.0
	21–25	58	25.6	84.6
	26–30	35	15.4	100.0
Education degree	Associate	30	13.2	13.2
	Bachelor	144	63.4	76.7
	Master	49	21.6	98.2
	PhD	4	1.8	100.0
Total	Total	227	100.0	100.0

4.2. Instruments

The instruments for data collection were the behavior and instructional management scale (BIMS) inventory (Martin & Sass, 2010), and observation checklist. The teachers were asked to complete the personal information questionnaire along with the BIMS inventory in order to make a profile of demographic variables including gender, years of teaching experience, and level of education (AA, BA, MA, PhD).

The BIMS inventory was used to measure the teachers’ classroom management orientations (Martin & Sass, 2010). The BIMS consists of 24 items each on a six-point Likert scale where the participants were supposed to indicate their responses from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree.” The inventory is composed of two subscales that address components of classroom management including behavior management (12 items) and instructional management (12 items). On this inventory, higher subscale scores indicate a more controlling, interventionist approach, while lower scores are indicative of a less controlling, non-interventionist approach in proper dimension of classroom management style (Martin & Sass, 2010). According to Martin and Sass (2010), BIMS inventory is a reliable and valid instrument that is useful in the empirical examination of classroom styles.

BIMS inventory was then translated into Persian by the two researchers to adapt to Iranian context and confirm its validity and reliability. The validity of the Persian version was confirmed by experts’ judgment. Two experts in the same department (one had PhD in Translation and another had PhD in TEFL) who had good experiences in construction and translation of questionnaires were inquired for their opinion with regard to the content relatedness, clearness, and preciseness of the items presented in the questionnaire. Having taken into account their opinions, appropriate modifications were applied. A final copy of the translated BIMS was agreed upon to be adopted for this study.

The reliability of Persian version of BIMS inventory (.72) was determined using Cronbach alpha coefficient. Reliability coefficients of the instructional management subscale and the behavior management subscale were found to be .77 and .67, respectively. To ensure that there is no vague item and to determine the time devoted for each teacher to complete the questionnaire, a pilot study was run to 30 teachers. The average time to return the questionnaire was about 12 min.

Having developed a researcher-made classroom management observation checklist, we consulted two PhD candidates in Ilam state University (one in TEFL and the other in Psychology). Then, the final draft of the checklist was developed. The checklist contained all the items in the BIMS inventory, with each item having a six point Likert scale where the observer was supposed to document observations.

4.3. Procedure and data analysis

Consistent with teachers’ availability and our convenience, the questionnaire was distributed among 240 English teachers. Each participant anonymously completed the questionnaire and the demographic information. After two weeks, 227 completed questionnaires were obtained.

In order to collect data about teachers’ actual classroom management practices, both researchers were trained to observe the teachers’ actual classroom management practices. After conducting a pilot study to observe six teachers’ classroom management performance, one of the researchers was selected as main observer. Then, 70 teachers including 35 males and 35 females, among all participants were selected. They were included from all years of teaching experience and degree of education. After getting approval of the teachers, the observer attended the classrooms and observed their actual classroom management for one hour and half; meanwhile, the observer filled in the checklist at the same time he was observing the process of teaching. Then, in order to see whether the teachers performed in the same manner asserted by their responses in the BIMS inventory, the data gathered through observations were matched with the questionnaires and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Descriptive statistics was used to calculate the percentage, means, and standard deviation of the variables and subscales of the questionnaire. Pearson correlation coefficients were adopted to realize whether there was any relationship between Iranian EFL teachers’ beliefs and their actual classroom management practices with reference to personal features such as gender, education level, and years of teaching experience.

5. Results

As stated previously, the present study endeavored to explore the beliefs of EFL teachers toward classroom management and the relationship between teachers’ beliefs and their actual practices of classroom management with reference to personal variables such as gender, education degree, and teaching experience. Data obtained through BIMS inventory and observations were analyzed using descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation coefficient tests. Results are provided below.

The data shown in Table 2 illustrate the mean score and standard deviation of behavior (M = 54.42, SD = 6.23) and instructional management (M = 41.27, SD = 3.88) subscales of classroom management. The mean scores on both subscales indicated that teachers are found to be interactionalist on both behavior and instructional management. The results also showed that teachers are more controlling on behavior management than instructional management.

Table 2. Descriptive statistics for teachers’ beliefs toward classroom management based on behavioral and instructional management

	N	Minimum	Maximum	Mean	Standard deviation
Behavioral management	227	35.00	72.00	54.4229	6.23557
Instructional management	227	30.00	51.00	41.2775	3.88412

To examine whether there was any statistically significant relationship between teachers’ classroom management beliefs and their actual practices with reference to their gender, Pearson coefficient correlation was run. Data illustrated in Table 3 reflect that Pearson correlation coefficient between male and female teachers’ beliefs and their actual practices of classroom management is .218 (p = .209), and .147 (p = .399) respectively. According to the obtained significance levels, it can be stated that there is neither statistically significant relationship between males nor females’ classroom management beliefs and their actual practices.

Table 3. Pearson correlation coefficient between teachers’ classroom management beliefs and their actual practices based on gender

Gender			Actual practices
Male	Teachers’ beliefs	Pearson correlation	.218
		Sig. (2-tailed)	.209
		N	35
Female	Teachers’ beliefs	Pearson correlation	.147
		Sig. (2-tailed)	.399
		N	35

In addition, Pearson correlation coefficient was computed so as to see whether there was any statistically significant relationship between teachers’ beliefs on classroom management and their actual practices in the classroom with reference to their degree of education. Table 4 depicts the results of the analysis. With reference to significance levels obtained for degrees of Associate and Bachelor, which were .103 and .360, respectively, it can be claimed that there was no significant relationship between teachers’ beliefs on classroom management and their actual practices among teachers with Associate and Bachelor degrees. However, the significance level for those with MA degrees which is .025 indicates that there was statistically significant relationship between their beliefs and actual practices on classroom management. In spite of high correlation coefficient between these two variables among teachers with PhD degrees, which was likely due to limited number of teachers with this degree, there is no relationship between their beliefs and their actual practices (r = .897, p = .076). In other words, except for PhD holders, there is a statistically significant relationship between the beliefs and actual practices of classroom management among teachers with higher level of education.

Table 4. Pearson coefficient correlation between teachers’ beliefs and their actual practices based on education degree

Education degree			Actual practices
Associate	Teachers’ beliefs	Pearson correlation	.619
		Sig. (2-tailed)	.103
		N	9
Bachelor	Teachers’ beliefs	Pearson correlation	.360
		Sig. (2-tailed)	.091
		N	34
Master	Teachers’ beliefs	Pearson correlation	.385^*
		Sig. (2-tailed)	.025
		N	23
PhD	Teachers’ beliefs	Pearson correlation	.897
		Sig. (2-tailed)	.076
		N	4

^* p < .05.

Finally, to explore the relationship between teachers’ beliefs toward classroom and their actual classroom management practices with reference to their teaching experience, Pearson correlation coefficient was again run, the results of which is summarized in Table 5. This finding reflects that among teachers with teaching experience of below 5 years and 5–10 years, there is a statistically significant relationship between their beliefs and actual practices of classroom management (r = .918, p = .028; r = .614, p = .034). While, this relationship is not significant among teachers with teaching experience of 11–15 (r = .371, p = .236) and 16–20 (r = .267, p = .355). Additionally, significance levels for categories of 21–25 years and 26–30 years, which are .471 and .762, respectively, indicate that there is no significant relationship between teachers’ beliefs toward classroom management and their actual practices with reference to teaching experience. All in all, it can be claimed that there is a significant relationship between teachers’ beliefs and their actual practices of classroom management among the less experienced teachers.

Table 5. Pearson coefficient correlation between teachers’ beliefs and their actual practices based on teaching experience

Teaching experience			Actual practices
Below 5 years	Teachers’ beliefs	Pearson correlation	.918^*
		Sig. (2-tailed)	.028
		N	5
5–10 years	Teachers’ beliefs	Pearson correlation	.614^*
		Sig. (2-tailed)	.034
		N	12
11–15 years	Teachers’ beliefs	Pearson correlation	.371
		Sig. (2-tailed)	.236
		N	13
16–20 years	Teachers’ beliefs	Pearson correlation	.267
		Sig. (2-tailed)	.355
		N	14
21–25 years	Teachers’ beliefs	Pearson correlation	.231
		Sig. (2-tailed)	.471
		N	14
26–30 years	Teachers’ beliefs	Pearson correlation	.093
		Sig. (2-tailed)	.762
		N	12

^* p < .05.

6. Discussion

Teachers’ attitudes and beliefs are considered to be essential for understanding and developing educational process since they are related to teachers’ strategies and techniques they used in the classroom. Additionally, teachers’ behavior and actions are closely linked to how they manage their classrooms and they can leave impact on student motivation and achievement (Wolfgang & Glickman, 1980). Accordingly, this study was an effort to explore the beliefs of EFL teachers toward classroom management. Further, the study investigated the relation between teachers’ classroom management beliefs and their actual practices in relation to variables such as gender, degree of education, and teaching experience.

According to the first finding of the study, none of the teachers were found to be non-interventionist on the two subscales of classroom management (behavior management and instructional management). This means that no teachers believed that they should allow students to have maximum control and to shoulder the primary responsibility for their own learning (Martin & Baldwin, 1993). This finding is in line with the previous study of Swanson, O’Connor, and Cooney (1990).

Additional analysis of the data revealed that no statistically significant relationship was observed between female and male participants’ beliefs on classroom management and their actual practices. In other words, the teachers’ beliefs and actual practices of classroom management were not very congruent with reference to male and female teachers. This finding may indicate that gender of participants does not play a significant role on the relationship between teachers’ beliefs on classroom management and their actual practices and this relationship is not gender bound.

Results obtained from Pearson correlation coefficient shown in Table 4 revealed that the relationship between the beliefs on classroom management and actual practices for teachers with Associate and Bachelor degrees is significantly different from teachers with Masters’ degrees. In this study, teachers with higher educational degrees, except for PhD holders (probably due to limited number of teachers with this degree), showed that there was congruence between their beliefs and actual practices on classroom management and actually they are interactionalist on both subscales of classroom management. Whereas, teachers with lower educational degree showed a discrepancy between their beliefs and actual practices on classroom management. These teachers held that they had interactionalist orientation on both dimension of classroom management. The teachers thought that they were inclined to interact with the students, allowing them to have control in their rules, sharing responsibility for classroom control, and paying attention to not only behaviors but also feelings (Cakiroglu & Gencer, 2007; Martin & Baldwin, 1992). Yet, in practice, the teachers’ actual performance in the classrooms showed that most of them had interventionist orientation on classroom management. They were in maximum teacher responsibility, choosing traditional behavior management, and focused more on behavior to quickly redirect it to positive.

Concerning the relationship between teachers’ beliefs on classroom management and their actual practices in the classroom considering the length teaching experience, drawing on analysis of data presented in Table 5, it can be concluded that years of teaching experience plays a significant role on the relationship between teachers’ beliefs and actual practices of classroom management. Less experienced teachers were found to have interactionalist attitudes and actual practices in classroom management, while experienced teachers asserted that they had interactionalist attitudes toward classroom management. Therefore, it can be concluded that as teachers become more experienced, the congruency between their beliefs and actual classroom management practices decreased and they become more interventionist (Horak & Roubinek, 1982). While less experienced teachers actually practice less teacher-controlling classroom management and are more patient, share responsibility and interact with students in comparison to experienced teachers (Martin & Baldwin, 1993).

7. Conclusion

The aim of the present study was to analyze beliefs of Iranian EFL teachers toward classroom management and the relationship between teachers’ beliefs and their actual practices of classroom management along with variables such as gender, education degree, and teaching experience. Data collected through the BIMS inventory revealed that teachers participated in the study were in favor of interactionalist in their general beliefs toward classroom management.

Results obtained from inferential statistics indicated that gender did not influence the relationship between the teachers’ beliefs and their actual practices of classroom management. Therefore, it should not be considered a criterion in evaluating the relationship between teachers’ beliefs and actual practices of classroom management. Besides, since there was a significant relationship between teachers’ beliefs toward classroom management and their actual practices among less experienced teachers, it can be concluded that the more experienced the teachers, the more discrepancy between their beliefs and actual practices of classroom management. This is perhaps due to the fact that those teachers who have been graduated in recent years are more in line with the research findings and have a more open-minded view to classroom management quite unlike old teacher-centered views and they believe in leaving some room for the students to participate in management of their class.

Likewise, the finding of the relationship between teachers’ beliefs and actual practices of classroom management by educational degree is also worth noting. There was a significant relationship between teachers’ beliefs and their actual practices of classroom management among teachers with higher educational degree. In other words, except for PhD holders, there was a trade-off relationship between the teachers’ degree of education and their beliefs and actual practices of classroom management. As the teachers’ educational level increased the discrepancy between their beliefs and actual practices of classroom management decreased, meaning that teachers with higher education levels have more scientific views to classroom management. It can therefore be concluded that graduate EFL programs are successful in developing students-centered approaches of EFL teachers.

8. Implications

The results of the current research can generally contribute to the body of classroom management literature by adding Iranian EFL actual practices of classroom management to their attitudes toward classroom management. More specifically, the findings of the study can provide educational administrators and educational policy-makers with information regarding similarities and differences between the teachers’ beliefs and actual practices of classroom management based on the gender, educational level, and teaching experience. Moreover, the results can cater for teachers education programs and educators an insight into the factors that may impact the practice of classroom management. The findings also have implications for educational policymakers to revise their teacher education programs which lead can to teachers’ developing conceptual understanding of management for successful teaching.

9. Limitations and suggestions for further research

In spite of the attempts in conducting the current research, some limitations need to be acknowledged. Firstly, this study was performed in the context of Ilam, so there may be some criticism on its generalizability. Therefore, further research is recommended with larger number of participants selected across different provinces to achieve more generalizable results. Secondly, this study investigated the teachers’ perceptions of classroom management using a Likert scale questionnaire; thus, further studies can be conducted applying other instruments such as open-ended questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. The last shortcoming was that limited hours of class observation were used in the study to evaluate the teachers’ actual practices of classroom management. Similar studies can be replicated with more hours of class observation to verify the findings.

As the variables included in this study illustrated noteworthy patterns, they need to be handled in the further studies. Additionally, new variables which are likely to be related to this relationship, such as school type and districts, need to be addressed in future research.

Acknowledgment

We would like to express our gratitude to Nancy Martine who gave us permission to use the Behavior and Instructional Management Scale (BIMS) in this study.

Additional information

Funding

Funding. The authors received no direct funding for this research.

Notes on contributors

Mohammad Aliakbari

Mohammad Aliakbari is a full professor of TEFL in Ilam University. His areas of interest embrace SLA, sociolinguistics, and teacher education. He is well published in international scholarly journals including, “Journal of Pragmatics”, “Educational Psychology”, “International journal of intercultural relations” and “Educational Management Administration & Leadership”.

Mohsen Heidarzadi

Mohsen Heidarzadi has got his BA in English language literature from Ilam University, Iran. He has got his master in English language teaching from the same university and is an English teacher in junior high school level. His area of interest included, co-teaching, language teaching, applied linguistics, and SLA.

Appendix A. Behavior and Instructional Management Scale

Directions: For each statement below, please mark the response that best describes what you do in the classroom. There is no right or wrong answers, so please respond as honestly as possible (strongly agree, agree, slightly agree, slightly disagree, disagree, and strongly disagree).

Table

Group	Statement
BM	I nearly always intervene when students talk at inappropriate times during class.
IM	I use whole class instruction to ensure a structured classroom.
BM	I strongly limit student chatter in the classroom.
IM	I nearly always use collaborative learning to explore questions in the classroom.*
BM	I reward students for good behavior in the classroom.
IM	I engage students in active discussion about issues related to real world applications.*
BM	If a student talks to a neighbor, I will move the student away from other students.
IM	I establish a teaching daily routine in my classroom and stick to it.
BM	I use input from students to create classroom rules.*
IM	I nearly always use group work in my classroom.*
BM	I allow students to get out of their seat without permission.*
IM	I use student input when creating student projects.*
BM	I am strict when it comes to student compliance in my classroom.
IM	I nearly always use inquiry-based learning in the classroom.*
BM	I firmly redirect students back to the topic when they get off task.
IM	I direct the students’ transition from one learning activity to another.
BM	I insist that students in my classroom follow the rules at all times.
IM	I nearly always adjust instruction in response to individual student needs.*
BM	I closely monitor off task behavior during class.
IM	I nearly always use direct instruction when I teach.
BM	I strictly enforce classroom rules to control student behavior.
IM	I do not deviate from my pre-planned learning activities.
BM	If a student’s behavior is defiant, I will demand that they comply with my classroom rules.
IM	I nearly always use a teaching approach that encourages interaction among students.*

*Item is reverse scored.

Appendix B. The Persian translated version of Behavioral and Instructional Management Scale