Post Graduate Diploma in Teaching(PGDT) Pre-service Teacher Development Policy Reform Initiative: Its Practices, Outcomes and Challenges in Bahr Dar University (BDU)

Abstract

Post graduate Diploma in teaching (PGDT) is secondary education teacher training policy reform and program that has been designed by the Ethiopian Ministry of Education (EMoE) in 2009 for delivering pedagogical, professional, foundational, behavioral and practicum courses in consecutive models. This study intended to investigate PGDT’s focus on why and how MoE adopted it, its practices, its outcomes and its challenges in Bahr Dar University (BDU). This study employed case study qualitative research design involving key informants from employers, teacher educators and student teachers, Focus Group Discussion (FGD), national policy documents, literature reviews and personal observations. The practice and outcome of PGDT policy reform and program failed in BDU or across Ethiopia, whereas the same initiative was successful when implemented in other countries. The major challenges for failure were teacher educators variable involving their attitude, commitment, competence; prospective student teachers variables comprising their attitude, commitment, intelligence; political, social and economic contexts including democratic work culture, budget availability, donor-driven initiative, social respect to teaching profession; institutional and MoE leaders variables like competence, commitment, knowledge of new initiative, leadership skill, and lack of genuine policy rhetoric and narratives. PGDT policy reform and program involves three teacher graduate values such as learner centeredness, teacher identity and serving the profession values together with skill and knowledge dimensions as outcomes. Rigorous interventions and adjustments in the abovementioned factors by teacher educators and MoE play a vital role in making PGDT policy or program effective and successful in BDU.

Keywords:

• Ethiopian PGDT
• secondary teacher education policy reform
• PGDT practices
• PGDT outcomes
• PGDT challenges
• Bahr Dar University

PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENTS

The purpose of this article is to analyze the Ethiopian secondary teacher development policy reform initiative, i.e. Post graduate Diploma in teaching (PGDT), with respect to its development, practice, outcome and challenges in Bahr Dar University (BDU). Different local researches, policy documents, focus group discussions, interviews and lived experiences were used as sources of data. The collected data were analyzed based on themes’ and contexts’ interpretation and then discussed. Secondary teacher development policy reform initiatives such as Teacher Education System Overhaul and PGDT are not well adapted, practiced and generally affect moderate- to low-competence graduates for many decades. The external contexts like political interference and social and economic factors, with institutional contexts such as student teachers, teacher educators and leaders, took accountability for failure of policy reforms and programs rather than policy paradigms, objectives, contents and curriculum. Therefore, revisions or interventions and adjustments shall focus on real causes of its failure.

1. Introduction

1.1. Background of Ethiopian secondary teacher education

Education policy reform initiatives were vigorously exercised in many countries bearing in mind one essential driving force, i.e. Education in itself has the power to create fundamental change for both individual citizen and the nation at large. Human capital is an essential requirement for economic, social, moral and citizenship behavior developments of a nation.

Secondary Teacher Education and Training Policy/Program is one of the special attention and priority areas of the overall national higher education policy and program initiatives in Ethiopia (Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRGE), 1994; Education Sector Development Program (ESDP) III and IV). This policy or program initiative could be developed centrally by the Federal Ministry of Education and/or specifically by the teacher education and training institutions. To this end, Ministry of Education (FDRGE, 1994) claimed that “[t]he teacher education program for secondary education is administered centrally by the Ethiopian Ministry of Education and the training takes place in universities”. Secondary Teacher Education Policies or programs were developed in line with the general objectives, overall strategies, areas of special attention, and priority actions existing in the National Education and Training Policy (NETP) of Ethiopia (Federal Democratic Republic Government of Ethiopia [FDRGE], 1994). The right to get education access for every citizen such as children, persons with impairment, minority groups, females, as well as funding stakeholders’ right to receive quality education that fit with locally, nationally and internationally accepted standards (Higher Educ. proclamation No. 650/2009) were the basic assumptions that triggered the need for teacher education policy and programs as special attention and priority areas. The quality of a nation depends on the quality of citizens which intern quality of citizen is dependant up on the quality of education system that again the quality of education system substantialy influenced with quality of teachers (Higher Education proclamation No. 650/2009; Bhattacharjee, 2015). Thus, specifically, teacher education training programs (TETPs) in the universities and generally concerned government officials other than universities had been accountable for the quality of teachers who are currently teaching in secondary schools in Ethiopia.

Taking the abovementioned assumptions into account, TETP in universities and the Ethiopian Ministry of Education (MoE) addressed teacher education development dimensions such as recruitment, selection, preparation, deployment, competence of graduates, methods of delivery, curriculum directives, institutional staff and student disciplines, assessment, institutional structure, leadership, conducive work climate and so on. Such functions of policy reforms or programs specially institutional and external variables other than curricular issues are not smoothly carried out in Higher Education Institutions (HEIs). They have come across several challenges in formulation, implementation and evaluation stages of the program and the policy (Nasir & Kedir, 2011). Both the pre-service and in-service secondary teacher developments can be a point of discussion in policy analysis. However, the focus of this study is pre-service secondary teacher development policy reform initiatives, specifically PGDT policy reform.

Historically, the development trends of teacher education policies/programs in Ethiopia involved the Hailelilasie I regime (1934–1974), the Dergue regime or the post-revolution regime (1974–1991) and the current regime, EPRDF (1991–2018). For instance, Teacher Development Program (TDP)1, 2, etc. which was issued in the early periods of EPRDF regime; Teacher Education System Overhaul (TESO) which was issued in 2003 and Post Graduate Diploma in Teaching (PGDT) which was issued in 2009; and Bachelor of education (BEd) which began recently in 2018 were the main teacher education policy reform documents representing policy reform initiatives in the EPRDF regime. Besides, the previous military regime made teacher education policy reforms in line with communist ideology including change of educational objectives, structure and admission policies. Admission policy for Teacher training institute (TTI) certificate program (12 + 1), college diploma (12 + 2) and degree (12 + 4) using the concurrent or integrative modality of training (Kedir, 2007; Semela, 2014),

1.2. Statement of the problem

In some countries like Ethiopia and Congo, government and private HEIs are now becoming lucrative markets where instructors, leaders, owners and agents trade grades, qualification certificates or degrees for various reasons such as sex, ethnicity, money, politics or any other benefits (Etshim, 2017; Kedir, 2007; Taiwo, Omole, & Omole, 2014). This could be the result of the existing education policy reforms, programs and regulations governing the education system. To this end, many scholars like Kedir, (2007), Nasir & Kedir, (2011) state that the Ethiopian teacher education reforms such as TESO and PGDT are characterized by superficial engagement, full of troubles, contradictions and chaos. Moreover, Aweke et al. (2017) focus on policy debates in Ethiopia post-1991 emanated due to two extreme views, i.e. equipping prospective teachers with strong subject matter knowledge and equipping prospective teachers mostly with knowledge of pedagogy and education foundation. These debates also create strife on the concurrent or consecutive teacher education modality used for teacher education and training. Other scholars like Tesfaye (2008) argue that failure of secondary school education teacher development policy reforms or programs is associated with lack of emphasis on local conditions, insufficient time and resource, and ignorance of teacher and student involvement and Kedir (2007) also identified two additional causes for failure of Ethiopian secondary teacher development policy reforms such as  non involvement of professional associations and communities in policy reform decisions and also government failure to conduct pilot study. These debates also entail that the root causes of the above pitfalls may be political-, socio-cultural-, economic- and institutional-based contexts that should be regulated and controlled by educational leaders within and outside the institution.

Due to the abovementioned conflicts, teacher preparation policy reform initiatives failed to achieve its desired goal, at least the minimal threshold. Disequilibrium on the abovementioned contexts may be the reasons for inability of the subsequent policy reforms like TDP, TESO and PGDT to alleviate the problems that cause their declaration (Kedir, 2007) and still continuing with problems of teacher education quality, lack of graduates’ competence, leadership quality and education quality (Tesfaye, 2008). Policy reform initiatives did not still bring desired professional and occupational competence alongside the set standards (Solomon, 2016). Gaps were observed at least in one of occupational competence areas such as demonstrating desired values, practicing required skills and adequately exercising specialization or general knowledge in occupational life (Kedir, 2007). Secondary school principals, supervisors and education bureau employers witnessed that gaps were observed in occupational competence of some teachers graduated in universities in consequtive graduating year. This is even worse for the recent graduates. However, root causes were not exhaustively investigated and identified, especially in Ethiopian setting by scholars on policy reform initiatives.

Highlights on the abovementioned teacher education reform agenda create questions for long in the researcher’s mind that why does PGDT policy reform initiative fail in Ethiopian HEIs and is successful in other countries with no significant program, curricula and instructional modality differences? Are secondary teacher education policy reforms or programs really alleviating teacher quality problems? What are the problems and from where these problems emanate? These questions were triggering conditions for the researcher to conduct such secondary teacher education policy analysis from formulation to outcome phases in BDU.

Therefore, the study, specifically, attempted to investigate the following research questions:

1. Why and how MoE adapted/adopted PGDT secondary teacher education policy reform and why PGDT program successfully produces desired graduates, for instance, in case of Singapore, Scotland, India, USA, etc., by alleviating aligned teacher education problems but not in case of Ethiopia?

2. How do MoE and HEIs improve the current status of practicum and course delivery practices of PGDT program toward desired standard in BDU?

3. How well PGDT graduates fit with planned standards in PGDT policy reform guidelines and standards in teaching occupational life?

4. What are the major challenges that cause some sort of failure in alleviating secondary education teacher development problems in PGDT program in BDU?

1.3. Purpose of the study

This research was conducted to check whether PGDT as secondary teacher development policy reform initiative or as program of educational change provides support for improvement of graduate teachers’ occupational competence by alleviating the problems underpinning secondary teacher education development since its emergence as secondary teacher education policy reform.

Specific objectives of the study

• To scrutinize the reasons or motives PGDT secondary teacher development policy reform was designed and why PGDT did not alleviate stated teacher education teacher development program problems.

• To see the current status of practicum and course delivery practices of PGDT program and explore interventions for its improvement in Bahr Dar University.

• To check whether PGDT graduates fit with desired standards in the national MoE official document and occupational life expectations.

• To identify the major challenges that caused PGDT to fail for alleviating secondary teacher education problems.

1.4. Significance of the study

There is a growing recognition that education is a critical weapon for bringing about sustainable development in any nation. This commitment was expressed through the allocation of significant resources as well as through the development of policies, policy reforms, programs and strategies for the expansion and quality of education. One of the policy issues that is given due regard in the educational discourse is secondary education teacher development policy reforms, its strategies, practices, outcomes and challenges in the process of cultivating desired secondary education teacher development with required teaching occupational competences. Therefore, studying the extent to which PGDT secondary education teacher development policy reform provides the required support and guides on producing desired quality teachers is of help for both policymakers and practitioners alike. Investigating what barriers cause PGDT unable to achieve its goal, i.e. preparing desired quality secondary schoolteachers by alleviating any aligned problems is also helpful for policymakers, educational leaders and practitioners for intervention, control and adjustment. That is why this article tries to highlight the very significance of studying teacher education and training policy reform known as PGDT and its contexts so that prospective student teachers’ occupational competence development in BDU is enhanced.

Generally, a better understanding of PGDT as secondary education teacher development guideline with its internal and external contexts enables teacher educators, educational leaders, prospective student teachers and other stakeholders of HEIs sufficiently dedicate motivation and effort to carry out PGDT activities well, which results in standard-level prospective teachers’ occupational competence development. Clarity on PGDT may help teacher educators provide quality course teaching and practicum placement school experiences that result in improved occupational competence of graduates. This study will help policymakers, educational leaders and teachers to revisit the possible internal and external policy contexts and make revisions and interventions possible.

1.5. Scope of the study

The study was delimited to the investigation of why and how PGDT as secondary education teacher development policy reform and program designed its practices, outcomes and challenges in BDU. Secondary education teacher development problems and the status of PGDT to alleviate these problems and causal factors or challenges that affect PGDT to improve graduates’ occupational competence were the focus of this study. This study was also delimited to specifically Bahr Dar University 2017/2018–2018/19 academic year experiences, practices and challenges.

2. Review of related literature

2.1. The concept of educational policy reform initiatives

Young and Levin (1999) defined education policy reforms as educational program, curriculum and objective changes that are government-directed and government-initiated based on an overtly political ideology basis, i.e. one driven by the political orientation of government rather than by educators or office experts, and justified on the basis of the need for a very substantial break from current practice. According to Young and Levin (1999), teacher education policies that serve as a guideline are developed by powerful political forces that safeguard the hegemony of existing powerful group (Kedir, 2007). The involvement of various interest groups of the population and essential stakeholders in the sector became less point of attention for policy formulation (Aweke et al., 2017; Nasir & Kedir, 2011; Kedir, 2007). Global, national and local economic contexts take over its share of substantial influences on majority of Ethiopian education policy reforms (Levin & Young, 1997). For instance, international and local donors provide fund for the education system with their own requirements of education policy issues. It is, therefore, essential to control and adjust internal and external policy influence to enhance the effectiveness of designed policy reform initiatives. Hence, it is important to closely frame teacher education policy reform initiatives and their performance standards or outcomes in line with the respective sociopolitical, economic and institutional perspectives and contexts.

2.2. Evidence from previous researches, researchers, their findings and conclusions on PGDT/Ethiopian secondary teacher education development policy reforms

There is a general agreement that pre-service teachers need to know about the general and specific subject matter, the way of delivering subject matter (content) in the classroom (pedagogy) and management of the self and students’ characteristics (professional behavior) during their training. Based on the abovementioned teacher competence dimensions, teacher education institutions in majority of countries in the world including Ethiopia deliver almost the same curricular course requirements for teacher preparation academic programs in HEIs (Aklilu, Alemayehu, & Mekasha, 2008; Low & Tan, 2017; Misra, 2015; Shishigu et al., 2017). Table 1 illustrates various literature reviews including specific authors, title of the study, methods, findings and conclusion with implication in Ethiopian setting.

Table 1. Empirical evidence collected from previous researchers in the area

Researcher	Title	Setting	Finding and conclusion
Semela (2014)	Ethiopian teacher education policy reform analysis	Ethiopia	PGDT encountered some sort of failure: political, social and institutional factors cause failure
Kedir (2007)	Secondary teacher educ. policy reform process: consequence & implication	Haremaya	TESO failed; lack genuine modern policy rhetoric (narratives); managerial approach leaders, Periferalization of practitioners; chaos
Nasir and Kedir (2011)	Ethiopia teacher education system: barriers and contradictions	Jima&Haremya	PGDT failed, agents (stakeholders) lack clarity, superficial engagement to reform or change, not effect improvement, contradictions and chaos often appeared
Solomon (2016)	Secondary education in Ethiopia: top-down policy reform	Ethiopia	PGDT came across serious implementation problem, top-down policy reforms, agents believe TESO as good but suddenly terminated at early phase
Awayehu, (2017)	PGDT: its practices and challenges	Bahr Dar	Serious implementation problem, lack coordination and conducive environment like physical resource, student and teacher educator commitment, PGDT failed
Gemechu et al. (2017)	Reform teacher education policy in Ethiopia: historical analysis	Ethiopia	Top-down policy formulation, policy imposition to followers, stakeholder resisting to implement, low attitude to PGDT, PGDT policy reform failed
Shishigu et al. (2017)	Policy debate in Ethiopian teacher education	AAU	PGDT was full of trouble, contention of concurrent/consecutive modality

Source: from literature review.

All studies employed qualitative design, TESO stands for Teacher Education System Overhaul.

3. Research design and methods

3.1. Research design

This study employed a qualitative approach, case study design in general.

3.2. Data sources of the study

PGDT policy reform government document and NETP document were reviewed to check how they serve as guidelines and alleviate secondary education teacher development problems and improve teachers’ occupational competence. Interviews, focus group discussions, researcher personal observations and empirical evidence from literature reviews required sources soliciting data for the study.

3.3. Sample size and sampling techniques

3.3.1. PGDT as government official document

PGDT curriculum framework document involving the contents, objectives, standards and strategies in BDU setting serve as part of the sample.

3.3.2. FGD sample

Eight student teacher participants were selected as participants for the FGD conducted in BDU. These participants were selected using departments and class representatives as inclusion criterion considering purposive sampling technique.

3.3.3. Interviewees

Two employers, two teacher educators and two student teachers were key informants consulted using purposive sampling technique on the assumption that they provide me better information. Words, phrases, sentences and articles of the documents and informants were used as units of analysis. Daniel Alebachew and Begosew Zelalem were teacher educator participants for interview-based data source. Daniel is senior instructor and coordinator for PGDT program. He is an associate professor with rich research and teaching experience in HEIs in Ethiopia. He participated in some of MoE-initiated task forces for the purpose of designing education policies and other related education issues. Begosew Zelalem is also a senior instructor in College of Education and Behavioral Sciences in Bahr Dar University. Moreover, Abel and Feyisa are student teacher interviewee participants in the study. Both were purposively selected assuming that they would provide in-depth information for the study. Further, two employers from Amhara National Regional State Education Bureau were selected on purpose as interviewee participants to provide the researcher in-depth information on occupational competence status and fitness of PGDT graduates with desired standards or occupational life. Tilahun Lealem who is a senior expert and Amanueal Belay who is the head of secondary teachers development and assignment participated in the interview data collection process.

In addition, unoberved events of PGDT attributes as used in context were the basic consideration in this analysis. All the contents and responses were selected for analysis using purposive sampling technique.

3.4. Data gathering instruments

3.4.1. Document analysis

To gather reliable and valid data from the sample secondary education teacher development policy reform document (i.e. PGDT), the researcher used document analysis supported by coding sheet prepared to investigate first research basic question, i.e. why and how PGDT was designed.

3.4.2. Focus group discussion

FGD was used to examine research basic question 3, i.e. the status of PGDT program graduate outcomes against planned standards, and the last basic question, i.e. the challenges for PGDT to alleviate secondary teacher development problems. FGD protocol was first prepared by the researcher and then further discussed during the discussion process. The duration of the discussion was 30 minutes and the discussion involved eight prospective student teachers and the researcher as participants. Existing preservice prospectve student teachers' 13 departments were used as inclusion criteria for forming FGD participants. The researcher facilitates the discussion relying on desired discussion points or subthemes under these basic questions. Both the researcher and one selected note writer were taking important notes from the discussion.

3.4.3. Interviews

Evidence relevant to the statuses of course and practicum delivery basic question as well as the status of fitness between PGDT policy reform or program graduates and PGDT guideline document standards and employers’ graduate competence standards basic question were collected using semistructured interviews with purposefully selected key informants. The researcher conducted 15-minute interviews with each teacher educator informant and 10-minute interview with each student teacher informant. Besides, 20-minute interviews were conducted for each employer interviewee. For instance, overall, how well do you feel PGDT secondary education teacher development policy reform and program (STEDPR&P) prepares teacher candidates to fit with employers’ job competence standards? Are you more likely to hire PGDT graduates rather than TESO or TDP1 or BED program graduates? were some of the guiding semi structured items.

3.4.4. Observation

A considerable valuable evidence was collected through the researcher’s personal observation since the researcher has much experience as part of participants interacting in multidimensions in BDU. So, participant and semistructured observations were conducted for more than 2 years by the researcher. Observation guiding reference points were considered for each basic question and frequency of observation records.

3.5. Data analysis techniques

The data secured using document analysis, focus group discussion, interview and personal observation were reported qualitatively in words following the basic research questions. To this end, words, phrases, sentences and articles of policy documents, FGDs and key informants’ responses were organized. Policy document content analysis and thematic-based interpretative analysis of interviews, focus group discussions and personal observations were major analysis tools. Description of interview or FGD item or issue to participants → quote participant responses → interpret contextually → discuss with literature and researcher ideas were sequentially applied frameworks in the analysis.

The researcher then summarized PGDT motives, practices, outcomes and the challenges in descriptive codes of a few words and grouped these brief descriptions into themes representing the motives, practices, outcomes and challenges undertaken. Where possible, the characteristics of PGDT motives, practices, outcomes and challenges were specified in terms of content, source, circumstances and stimulus. Each outcome and challenge dimensions were also categorized under subdimensions using V₃SK outcome model developed by Low and Tan (2017) and the challenge dimensions using various empirical literature sources such as by Kedir (2007) and Semela (2014). In cases of doubt, the author discussed which category of coding would be appropriate.

Specifically, data analysis was made following the sequence of research basic questions together with discussion for each data presented under the themes and subthemes. Summary of FGD data instead of each member respondent data was organized and used for analysis. PGDT policy reform and program outcome data analysis was made using summary of FGD, employers’ and student teachers’ interview responses, and document analysis. The writer made a reflection based on ontology and epistemology assumptions on each data analysis throughout all basic research questions. Findings of previous researches, policy documents empirical evidences and primary resource evidences were all triangulated in discussion to obtain the fact, reality and truth in answering the research questions.

4. Findings and discussion

4.1. Why and how MoE designed PGDT? And why PGDT did n0t successfully produce desired graduates alleviating stated problems?

Although modern education began in 1908 in Ethiopia, teacher education was not established until 1944 in the country. Secondary teacher education started late in 1950 in Ethiopia. PGDT is one of a few education policy reform initiatives in Ethiopia. MoE (2009, p. 3) government official document state the reason or motive that PGDT was designed as follows:

PGDT program was designed to confront several problems of the old teacher training program such as inadequate subject-matter competence on the part of teachers, insufficient and improper active learning methods in the classroom, insufficient professional commitment and work ethic among teachers, lack of teacher interest in following up and assisting students, and poor school-community relationships.

This implies the old secondary education teacher training programs such as the traditional content–focused TDP and the modern holistic approach: TESO, i.e. balanced integration of content, method and behavior in curriculum and also integration of educator and student personal experiences, environments and communities within curricular instructions Solomon (2016) were characterized by or not free from the above identified teacher development problems. Besides, it implies that the concurrent modality teacher development paradigm was not an adequate training route that it cannot effect desired quality teachers. To this end, the old teacher development policy reform known as Teacher Education System Overhaul was terminated by the government (Solomon, 2016). This occurred because the government believes that the dominant cause for low competence of teacher graduates, inadequate professional commitment and work ethic, inadequate self and student behavior management and insufficient practice of active learning methods was the TESO policy reform including the concurrent training modality.

The MoE’s decision of terminating TESO secondary teacher development policy reform and program was not the right way to improve teacher graduates subject matter competence, professional competence and self or student behavior management since the most influential and frequently appearing causes for the ill preparation of teacher graduates in the recent past and current regimes were the system and process deficiency, the internal and external contexts rather than the TESO policy reform and its concurrent training modality.

Finally to replace TESO by another policy reform and program, PGDT policy reform with consecutive training modality was designed and practiced to solve the abovementioned problems. More than a decade has passed practicing PGDT policy reform or program and consecutive training modality alone in Ethiopia until now.

However, PGDT also did not alleviate the above-stated problems until the recent 2019 academic year because it did not properly and adequately function addressing the problems in depth to the point of expected change (Kedir, 2007; Semela, 2014; Solomon, 2016). In PGDT, a consecutive model has been used where prospective secondary education teachers undergo intensive training in professional or pedagogical courses for 1 year after finishing their undergraduate studies in applied disciplines to be qualified as teachers (Ethiopian Ministry of Education, 2009). This is a major paradigm shift from concurrent instructional and training delivery to consecutive model which needs wisdom and committed change agents who can make sufficient advocacy and narratives in order to adjust attitude of at least essential stakeholders and customers. However, the attitudes and commitments of major stakeholders like student teachers, teacher educators, educational leaders and the community have taken a challenge to accomplish activities of the program which enable alleviation of teacher education problems and improvement of teacher professional development and teaching occupational competence.

Further sufficient justifications were provided in the official document analysis and institutional function about PGDT policy reform initiative development, practice, outcome and challenge analysis that confirmed incapability of PGDT program to achieve its intended goal as educational reform and the barriers for it.

The specific objectives of PGDT have been stated by MoE official secondary teacher education policy reform document (2009, p. 6):

Equip trainees with the knowledge, skills and dispositions required to become effective secondary school teachers; Enable trainees to become reflective practitioners who are able to analyze, evaluate and act to improve their own practice and develop further professional knowledge and skills; Develop understanding of the nature of teacher professionalism, the responsibilities of teachers and the professional values and ethical practice expected of them; Create awareness that a central characteristic of teaching as a career is engagement in a lifelong process of professional learning and development; Develop trainees’ capacity to engage in research to inform and develop their practice. Institutionalize equity in the teaching force and reach underprivileged areas in the provision of quality secondary education. Provide teacher trainees with the theoretical and practical experience they need to achieve all the standards and competencies set by Ministry of Education.

The policy document involves the above well-stated secondary teacher education program objectives in line with V₃SK teacher development policy frameworks practiced within known teacher education model countries worldwide such as Singapore, Scotland, India and others (Low & Tan, 2017; Misra, 2015).

Furthermore, secondary teacher education policy reform or program initiatives (i.e. PGDT) in Ethiopia comprises more or less similar contents, objectives and strategy in the teacher education program curriculum within model countries across the world like Singapore, Scotland and others. In addition, the abovementioned countries’ teacher education curriculum involves the professional courses, subject area courses, practicum practices, research skill, moral and ethical behavior developments which are all considered as important areas of secondary teacher quality (Darling-Hammond, 2006a and 2006b; Donaldson, 2011; Feldman, 1976a; Low & Tan, 2017; Misra, 2015; MoE, 2009; Shulman, 1987). In this regard, there is no much significant difference between Ethiopia and other countries. To this end, Ethiopian MOE official document, (2009, p. 12) proposed the following to be delivered in teacher education curriculum of PGDT program so as to achieve the stated objectives:

Assessment and evaluation of learning; Psychological foundations of learning and development; Teachers as reflective practitioners; Secondary school curriculum and instruction; School and society; Subject area teaching I & II; Instructional technology; Teaching in a multicultural setting; Inclusive education; English for teaching and learning; Practicum; and Action research project.

If well delivered as stipulated and to the level of desired standards, the courses enable prospective student teachers master the set objectives and produce teacher graduates with desired teacher quality ingredients. However, a considerable proportion of graduates in education occupation of various specializations demonstrates substantial gaps on occupational competence in their novice career life. Why the above well-stated objectives and courses did not result in the desired teacher quality and occupational competence in our teacher education system needs further analysis as provided in the following sections.

4.2. PGDT practicum and course delivery practices in BDU

The structure of a field experience is a critical aspect linked to meaningful and authentic learning experiences for teacher candidates. A structured field experience is more than a traditional observation and reflection; it involves interactive experiences such as creating positive student–teacher relationship, planned activities, organized functions, varied class activities, creative thinking, the use of new and/or varied instructional techniques, teaching small group pull outs, mentoring students, and overall “learning by doing” activities (Bartelheim & Conn, 2014; Postholm, 2012). The assigned mentor teacher serves as a coach to encourage and foster pre-service teacher candidates’ development of pedagogical knowledge and skills (McMahan & Garza, 2016).

Boz (2012) proposed that pre-service teachers begin to develop pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) before any classroom contact. If we accept this notion, then teacher development begins in the university classroom at a conceptual level that should be further enhanced through genuine classroom engagement within a structured field experience. In this study, structured field experience refers to deliberately facilitating learning and teaching opportunities for pre-service teachers in an authentic school setting during established days and times. This also includes deliberate placement with a mentor teacher during the semester before the student teaching practicum. The mentor teacher is a classroom teacher who volunteers time to work collaboratively with a teacher candidate. The mentor serves as a model for teacher preparation and assists the teacher candidate in further refining his/her skill set. For purposes of this study, the mentor teacher responsibilities included guiding the candidate’s lesson planning, scheduling a time to implement a lesson, providing feedback after instruction, participating in frequent dialogue concerning the strengths and weaknesses of the candidate’s effectiveness in the teaching situation, guiding the candidate in making the transition from student to teacher and conferring with the university field-based faculty liaison as needed. These expectations are viewed as collaborative in nature rather than reciprocal. The teacher education programs in BDU use a variety of approaches and methods to enhance the growth and development of pre service teachers. The field experience component, coupled with a positive mentoring opportunity, is one of the major contributing factors in the development of aspiring teachers (McMahan & Garza, 2016).

Pre-service teachers must have the opportunity to practice coursework learning in order to enhance their pedagogical and content knowledge and skills as a way to bridge the gap between theory and practice (Boz, 2012). Teacher educators not only focus on providing innovative field experience options, but also they systematically include time for pre-service teachers to reflect on their learning while immersed in authentic settings. To this end, BDU has a trend of organizing practicum field practice for regular pre-service student teachers of PGDT program at least once in a year for 1-month duration within the nearby surrounding secondary schools. In line with the functions of PGDT practicum, the first key informant Daniel A. responded as follows:

Student teachers were allowed to stay at least four weeks in practicum field i.e. first week for school general observation; second week for class room observation and next 3rd and 4th weeks for practicing actual class room teaching. Mentor instructors were assigned for each group and provide support and feed back for each student teacher. Every teacher educator mentor is expected to engage in at least 3 class room observations and provide feedback for every student teacher class room teaching. Furthermore, PGDT coordination office provide trainings for school mentors on how to guide and support practicum exercising student teachers then assigned them mentors in each secondary schools to provide support for each student teachers. (December 2018)

From the responses of the key informant, Daniel A., one can understand that the practicum field practice was relatively well organized so as to run PGDT functions in line with PGDT policy reform and program initiative directions (Table 2). From my personal participant observations, PGDT functions like registration, creating conducive work environment, Learner assessment and submission of grade and finally professional guideline orientations were relatively given based on planned schedule in BDU.

Table 2. Summary of PGDT practicum and course learning–teaching practice code matrix

Dimensions	Subdimensions	Description with specific examples	Perceived practice status
Coordination	Work assignment	Adequately assigned on time	High
	Schedule notification	Prepared on time for all concerned	High
	Resource provision	Finance and transport	High
Physical resources	Class rooms	Condition and smartness of rooms	High
	Furniture	Tables, chair, light, blackboard	High
	Instructional technology	LCD, laptop, printer	High
Instructor readiness	Value learners	Support learners fairly, heartly	Moderate
	Commitment	Motivation and effort to teach	Low
	Competence	Subject matter and profession ability	Moderate
Learner readiness	Attendance, note-taking	Absent	Moderate
	Intelligence level	Capacity to learn	Low
	Commitment	Devote sufficient time and effort	Low
Instructional activity	Mental exercises	Various mental exercises provided	Low
	Active learning	Balance of theory, learner reflection, etc.	Low
	Assessment	Accurately measure learner progress	Moderate to low
Practicum	School observation	Learners master school variables	Moderate to low
	Mentor class observation	School mentor–learner interaction	Moderate to low
	Real class teaching	Student teacher–pupil interaction	Moderate
	Instructor–student teacher discussion, reflection	Interaction until learner master desired skills	Low

Source: FGD and interview responses of participants, February 2019

Daniel A. also confirmed in his response that

Even though the above attempts were done, some gaps were observed on the motivation and commitment of teacher educator mentors to devote adequate time, effort and energy until student teachers master desired skills. Many teacher educators did not devote sufficient time for observing student teachers’ practicum work in the school. Some teacher educators devote even less than 1day duration and not more than one time class room teaching observation per student teacher. Likewise on the side of student teachers also observed considerable gaps of lack of readiness and commitment. (December 2018)

This implies that student teachers did not get sufficient support from teacher educators on one side and student teachers themselves missed learning opportunities on the other side which may both result in poor graduate occupational competence. This finding confirmed various previous study findings found by Kedir (2007), Solomon (2016) and Nasir and Kedir (2011), all of which discussed findings and demonstrated in their conclusion that PGDT policy reform and program failed to alleviate secondary education teacher development problems which underpin its emergence as policy reform initiative. Despite the fact that teachers occupational competence was still continued suffering with quality problems (Semela, 2014).

In addition, Daniel A. stated PGDT course teaching learning process as follows:

The coordination of PGDT program course teaching learning process takes place in the main campus of BDU. Infrastructures like class room and furniture has been well organized. The PGDT curriculum involve professional, pedagogic, foundation and general knowledge courses which were delivered by qualified instructors so as to effect desired teaching occupation graduate competence. Program schedules were well developed and notified to the concerned teachers relatively on time that enable teachers to apply day one-class one announcement. Students were also notified to be ready for the class on the right time. Even though motivational and commitment gaps were observed on the side of teacher educators especially to run teaching learning activities in continuous pattern. Generally, students lack interest and commitment for learning. This may be due to lack of salary payment, lack of goal setting for teaching occupation, Using the program for stay until getting another alternative, and so on. For instance, from those 20 student teachers admitted for PGDT in economics department, only 6 were continued until completion of the program while others were employed to another occupation. (December 2018)

This implies that teachers demonstrated less commitment and motivation for carrying out policy reform initiatives. In the same way, student teachers also loosely practiced learning–teaching activities (Sarwar & Ashrafi, 2014) which cause for their poor pedagogic and foundation knowledge, skill and values.

The second key informant, Begosew Z., confirmed in his response saying that

No one teacher educator support consecutive modality of teaching compared to the concurrent one in Bahr Dar university. Student teachers get better opportunity of learning pedagogic and foundation knowledge if they learn integrating both the specialization and professional courses at a time in first degree program. (December 2018)

This implies that learning modality may be the cause for teachers’ low commitment and motivation in BDU. So conducting some discourses on the merit and demerit of the different learning modalities especially the concurrent and consecutive modalities is very important (Semela, 2014; Shishigu et al., 2017). Many countries like Singapore, Scotland, USA, India and others have applied both teacher education modalities alternatively at a time to produce desired teacher education graduates for primary, secondary or higher education levels. For instance, in Scotland, in the latter half of the nineteenth century, teacher education became increasingly professionalized at least in initial qualification, and in the end of nineteenth century and beginning of twentieth century, post-graduate trainings became common actions (Misra, 2015). Scotland’s ITE currently delivered both modalities in seven universities of Scotland, i.e. (1) combined, joint, concurrent degree which includes subject area, education and school practice study at a time. (2) PGDE course training following a degree in specific specialization. Likewise, Singapore undertakes PGDE training inviting one-third of top cohort graduating class of tertiary education for PGDE (post-graduate diploma in education by National Institute for Education, Low and Tan, 2017). Besides, two major programs were opened for prospective secondary teacher preparation in Singapore such as (1) undergraduate program including BA in (Ed.), BSc in (Ed.) or BEd. The candidates are diploma holders or national secondary education leaving certificate top scorers. (2) PGDE involving 1-year program for learning professional and pedagogical courses. The candidates are first-degree holders before admission (Low and Tan, 2017).

Finally, two student teachers (Abel B. and Feyisa T.) also confirmed the abovementioned sayings of teacher educators as follows in their interview:

PGDT learning program is not that much important to add value on teachers’ occupational competence. We, student teachers did not give attention for PGDT except considering it as formality to be a teacher. We can be good teacher although we do not take PGDT. (January 2019)

From this, we can understand that student teachers’ attitude and belief toward pedagogic and foundation courses has been low, then their interest and commitment to learn PGDT program became superficial, i.e, not genuine which means just they attend PGDT for formality because it is a requirement to be a teacher. This finding was consistent with that of Koye (2014); Iyasu;s (2017) findings and conclusions that prospective student teachers’ attitude toward their profession became deteriorating due to economic and social factors attached with teaching profession.

These student teachers’ belief, commitment and readiness on PGDT policy reform or program really affect the teaching learning function and the outcomes of PGDT program to be unsatisfactory. But not the objectives, content or curriculum of PGDT become problematic rather than the contexts.

4.3. Exploring whether PGDT graduates’ occupational competence fit with the expected teacher value standards, professional skills and job expertise standards?

The focus group discussion theme dimensions and subtheme dimensions including description with specific examples were drawn from PGDT document analysis and researcher’s reading from literature. The perceived statuses of each subdimension were determined by interaction judgment of student teachers in the FGD participation. The two employer interviewee responses also play great role in deciding the status of PGDT program graduates’ actual (perceived) occupational competence vis-à-vis desired or planned outcome standards.

In the Ethiopian MoE documents issued in 2009, 11 national standards on secondary teacher education: (1) know influences of students’ developmental change for learning; (2) know how students learn; (3) know the content; (4) know how to teach content; (5) plan for and implement effective teaching and learning; (6) create and maintain support for learners; (7) create and maintain safe learning environments; (8) assess, provide feedback and report on student learning; (9) engage in professional learning; (10) understand the education policy and strategies and participate in curriculum and other program development initiatives; (11) engage professionally with colleagues, parents/caregivers and the community who were set to evaluate the effectiveness or success of teacher preparation policy reform initiatives (MoE, 2009, 2012). These standards focus on three dimensions of teacher competence as mastery of content knowledge 1,2 and 3, professional practice/skills 3,4,5and 8 and Teacher professional engagement/values 6,7,9 and 10.

Several empirical studies suggest characteristics of quality teachers in line with teacher occupational competencies (Shulman, 2000; Hayes & Chamberlain, 1998). Common to all these studies and commentaries are having a broad understanding of curriculum aims and objectives, having a wide range of pedagogical strategies, having high expectations of all students, knowing their students well; providing effective feedback, recognizing student success, having sound content knowledge of the subject and understanding what it means to progress (Harlen & James, 1997). Moreover, the most important characters or qualities of good teacher but not get attention and mastery by a considerable licensed teachers or student prospective teachers in Ethiopia are discussed by scholars such as Feldman (1976a and 1976b); Shulman (1987) as: teacher sensitivity to learner class level and progress, clarity of course requirements, understandable explanations, respect for students, encouragement of independent and collaborative thought, choice in assignments, appropriate pace in lecturing, expressiveness, lesson organization, local examples or cases, designing mental activity, passion on learning their fields, students, and teaching, and passion on research. These researchers comment that teachers “cannot” provide experiences and activities that guide student progress toward understanding ideas if they themselves do not know, practice or value the above qualities (Yordanos, 2019).

Similarly, the skills and knowledge of an effective teacher are summarized by Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999/2000, p. 188) as follows:

Expert teachers have a firm understanding of their respective disciplines, knowledge of the conceptual barriers that students face in learning about the discipline, and knowledge of effective strategies for working with students. Teachers’ knowledge of their disciplines provides a cognitive roadmap to guide their assignments to students, to gauge student progress, and to support the questions students ask. The teachers focus on understanding rather than memorization and routine procedures to follow, and they engage students in activities that help students reflect on their own learning and understanding.

The abovementioned explanation indicates that teachers’ attainment of values, skills and specialized, supportive or general knowledge are complimentary to yield effective teaching.

Many researchers coined that the sole subject matter knowledge and pedagogical knowledge separately did not bring the lesson to affordable manner to maximize learning among students (Shulman, 1987). The term PCK was originally coined by Shulman (1987) with conceptual definition as “the most useful forms of representation … the most powerful analogies, illustrations, examples, explanations, and demonstrations—in a word, the most useful ways of representing and formulating the subject that make it comprehensible to others” (Shulman, 1987, p. 7).

According to Gess-Newsome and Lederman (1999), PCK and skill includes the information and practice of the conceptual and procedural knowledge and action that teachers and students bring to the learning of a topic in the learning–teaching process.

Teachers’ day-to-day application of desired teacher values, knowledge and skills (V₃SK) predicts students’ academic achievement (Low & Tan, 2017). This implies that if teachers’ competence in all the three dimensions substantially improved, then students’ academic achievement also improved with the desired standard quality of education. Ultimately, the cyclical process of wisdom transmission through learning teaching from generation to generation occurs effectively at the level of planned standard and quality.

However, as findings witnessed, prospective student teachers’ or PGDT graduates’ occupational competence in terms of engagement and practice of desired teacher values, skills and content knowledge in the study area showed some sort of limitation to fit with the already set occupational competence standards of institutional, national and even global employers, i.e. industries, NGOs and governments (Table 3).

Table 3. Summary of interviews, FGD and document analysis findings on the fit between actual occupational competence and planned or desired graduate competence standards in global, national or PGDT guideline criterion

Dimensions	Subdimensions	Description with specific examples	Perceived outcome status
Desired teacher values	Learner centeredness values	Respect, fairly treat, guide and support	Moderate to low
	Teacher identity values	Attitude, commitment, interest	Low to very low
	Serving the profession values	Voluntarily stay long in occupation	Low to very low
	Serving the community values	Discharge social responsibility	Moderate to low
Desired teacher skills	Reflective skill	Asking others for one’s strong and weak points; regulate self from peer teaching or colleagues.	Low to very low
	Critical thinking skill	In-depth or creative thinking, innovativeness	Low to very low
	Pedagogical skill	Effective instruction, assessment, feedback	Moderate to low
	Self and learner behavior management skill	Nurturing self skills, learner behavior	Moderate
Desired expertise/knowledge	Graduates’ general knowledge	Knowledge of real-world life, events, etc.	Moderate to low
	Graduates’ specialization knowledge	Specialization content knowledge	Moderate to low
	Graduates’ pedagogic knowledge	How to teach specialization content	Moderate to low
	Graduates’ psycho-social knowledge	Interpersonal relationship and behavior	Moderate to low

Source: Student teachers’ FGD and ARSEB Interviewee responses, V₃SK model; April 2019.

4.4. The major challenges that affect the functions of PGDT

The challenges that affect the functions of PGDT are multidimensional in type and character that should be examined so as to enhance its positive effect or to control and reduce its negative effect on the effectiveness of the program(Table 4).

Table 4. Summary of focus group discussion and observation check list data on challenges of PGDT practices in BDU

Dimensions	Subdimensions	Description with specific examples	Perceived difficulty
Institutional origin Challenges	Leadership at top to bottom	Follow ups by deans, coordinators	Slightly difficult
	Physical resource and furniture	Class rooms quality	No difficulty
	Instructional technology	ICT, Internet,	Slightly difficult
	Teacher educators variable	Devotion on the program, practicum	Very difficult
	Student teachers readiness	Low motivation, attitude, effort,	Difficult
Curriculum	Relevance and quality of courses	Pedagogic and foundation courses	Slightly difficult
	Use various instruction models	Cooperative learning, modular instruction, lecture focus learning	Difficult
	Objective, content and learning experiences integration	Lack local examples, cases, activities, updated content,	Difficult
	Instructional text availability and quality	Text book availability, quality for majority courses	Difficult
	Consecutive learning paradigm	Separately deliver pedagogic, foundation and behavioral courses	Difficult
Psycho-social factors	Low respect of society for the profession	Local community disrespect the profession	Difficult
	Low attitude and self-confidence	Considered as least job alternative	Difficult
	Enculturation problems	Problem transferred to generation	Difficult
Political influence	Political elites interference	Selection of trainees, assigning leaders, budget allocation	Difficult
Economic factors	Student teachers salary issue	Lack of school mentors fee, student fee	Difficult
	Lack of budget for practicum	Lack of advisors’ fee, transport fee	Difficult

These factors make large difference on the practice and outcomes of secondary education teacher development policy reforms or programs. For instance, attitude and commitment of instructors and leaders to run tasks and teach prospective teacher candidates, prospective student teachers’ intelligence level during selection, attitude and commitment of prospective student teachers to positively accept the policy or program initiatives, and so on are major internal causes for policy failure in one country and success in another countries. External factors like political ideology interferences, group domination (undemocratic culture), biases, and lack of expertise on the policy or program initiative agents in MoE were the major factors that account more for policy success difference between Ethiopia and other countries.

MoE (2009) government official document confirmed the abovementioned internal and external factors as the main reasons for launching PGDT policy reform initiative to alleviate the problems, but the problems became worse in PGDT as my study findings, current realities and previous related studies indicated.

The attitude and commitment of secondary education teacher educators on the teacher education policy reform or program initiatives play decisive role in success of the policy reform initiatives. Competence and self efficacy issues of instructors need intervention of concerned bodies to grow the level of well matured.

So, MoE and university educational leaders should treat instructors to narrow down the gap by conducting a study provided that instructors may develop positive attitude for teaching profession. Hence, secondary school teacher educators’ effort and motivation on overall preparation of prospective student teachers increased. Then, the self-efficacy, competence, ethics and moral aspects of secondary school teacher educators become well matured. CPD of secondary school teacher educators need to get attention by the university. Program leaders’ support and follow-up with secondary teacher training institutions play vital role in the quality of secondary teacher graduates.

Recruitment and selection of competent prospective teacher candidates

The capability of learning varies from individual to individual. Teacher education programs need to recruit and select more potentially rich prospective student teacher candidates from the overall preparatory school graduates or applied field study graduates in the country. However, potentially rich candidates do not voluntarily apply for teacher education program to join teaching profession, but rather prefer other field of studies like health expertise, engineer, accountant, etc. This may be due to the lower status of teaching profession when compared to others in terms of generating income, social respect, career development and so on. This problem is more in many developing countries like Ethiopia while minimal in developed and democratic countries. To solve this problem, recruitment and selection can be carried out in multidimensions. For instance in Singapore, recruitment and selection takes place at secondary school stage, at the end of secondary school national exam certificate or at the end of applied discipline degree (Low & Tan, 2017). In Ethiopia, the last two options were common experiences (MOE, 2009).

The attitude and commitment of prospective student teachers play decisive role in positively accepting the policy or program initiatives, i.e. PGDT is important to build students’ self-efficacy, skill of teaching method, social, ethical and moral behavior developments need to be well known by prospective student teachers (Gemechu, 2017). Many student teachers believe that PGDT program is not that much supportive for learners’ self-efficacy, teaching method skill, social, affect, and ethical and moral behavior developments as they responded in the interview as well as observed in their learning interaction. This belief must be resolved first so that sound effort and motivation can be exerted from student teachers to master desired self-efficacy, teaching method skill, affect, interpersonal relationships, and ethical and moral value developments from PGDT programs.

Political ideology or system interferences: Teachers need autonomy and freedom of independence for doing professional duties and responsibilities under a democratic work culture. Budget and resource support should be provided for teachers to accomplish their tasks well. Task performance recognitions, appraisal and rewards need to be fair and free of biases. Task assignments need to be merit-based and profession-based rather than other criteria. However, it is uncommon for secondary teacher education instructors in BDU or Ethiopia to see frequently professional freedom, citizenship freedom and fair social justice which are ultimate goals of education. The impact of these situations on collapse of secondary teacher education policy initiatives is substantial (Nasir&Kedir, 2012).

Therefore, a policy to be realized as stipulated, internally the institutional potentials and externally social, political, economic and global contexts, needs to be well considered to be compatible for practice as well as outcome of the policy.

When PGDT policy reform was formulated, participation and involvement of major stakeholders through undertaking survey receive less attention, except task forces established with initiative ownership of MoE or donors rather than public. Advocacy frameworks for policy (McBeth, Jones and Shanahan in Sabatier & Weible, 2014) and narrative policy frameworks (McBeth, Jones and Shanahan in Sabatier & Weible, 2014) which are essential for communication of values and success of the policy were less considered (Nasir & Kedir, 2012). However, during implementation and evaluation stages, interferences of external factors especially politicization of education to sustain hegemony appeared; socio-political interest groups i.e. (ethnic, language and administrative region based un faire resource share interferences; then challenges of prejudices, aggression and discrimination became an event in the policy cycle (Nasir & Kedir, 2012). Hence, one can infer that PGDT policy encountered substantial failure in Ethiopia but successfully functional in many other countries globally like Singapore, Scotland, India, USA and others (Low & Tan, 2017)

Prospective student teachers need to be paid monthly salary and other fringe benefits during PGDT training because many countries hired prospective student teachers in PGDE as full-time work beginner teachers. This may affect student teachers’ attitude for PGDT. Moreover, contractual agreement was not signed between MoE and prospective student teachers to serve MOE for at least 3–4 years after PGDT graduation. This may help to handle prospective teachers to stay at least for some years in the service (Low & Tan, 2017).

The competence of change agents in MoE to advocate and direct change initiatives is an essential requirement for policy or program initiative success. This may be an area of challenge for Ethiopian MoE structural organization (Nasir & Kedir, 2012).

Majority of the problems need intervention for their adjustment in the program. The most pressing challenges emanate from institutional origin. For instance, problem of educational leadersat top to bottom levels interms of their commitment and ability to influence followers (Gemechu et al., 2017; Kedir, 2007; Nasir & Kedir, 2012; teacher educator issues (Sain & Kaware, 2014) and prospective student teacher (Koye, 2014; Awayehu, 2017) variables take the largest share for failure of PGDT program. In addition, political ideology interferences in line with exercising democratic work culture, assignment of top educational leaders, assignment of prospective student teachers and setting policy reforms cause substantial negative influence on carrying out the policy. Likewise, social and economic contexts become challenges for the program especially for cultivating desired attitudes among student teachers and teacher educators.

Hence, generally internal and external factors need to be regulated and then PGDT can properly guide and affect the desired occupational competence.

5. Conclusion and implications for future to improve policy reform initiatives like PGDT

Secondary teacher education policy and program initiatives in Ethiopia become successful not only by adopting good policy, program and curricular initiatives from other countries but also by changing political, social, economic and institutional contexts as convenient to carry out the new reform initiative. The achievement, outcome and impact of PGDT policy reform and program initiative in Ethiopia demonstrated some sort of failure due to unfavorable influential contexts rather than the substances (objectives, contents, strategies and standards) in PGDT policy reform and curriculum framework guides.

The consecutive modality secondary teacher development program, i.e. PGDT, can affect desired quality teachers if socio-economic, political, teacher educator and prospective student teachers requirements regulated, controlled and adjusted well within and out of the institution in the process of teacher development. Therefore, both modalities (concurrent and consecutive) can be applied in parallel for teacher preparation academic programs.

Rigorous adjustments on the most accountable factors such as teacher educators variables involving their attitude, commitment and competence; prospective student teachers variable comprising their attitude, commitment and intelligence; political, social and economic contexts including democratic work culture, budget availability and social respect to teaching profession; institutional and MoE leaders variable like competence, commitment, knowledge of new initiative and leadership skill play vital roles in making PGDT policy reform or program initiatives effective and successful in Ethiopia.

Prospective student teachers trust on the courses and trainings of PGDT that it really results in mastery of self efficacy, method of teaching/research skill, interpersonal attraction skill, student behavior management, ethical and moral thought developments need to be genuine rather than superficial as many studies confirmed it.

In addition, MoE shall focus on a shift to public-driven policy and program initiatives rather than donor-driven focus. MoE shall strengthen institutional self-efficacy on initiating/setting policy reform initiatives rather than depend on task force group. Diverse stakeholders’ participation/vote on policy options is essential so that sense of public-driven ownership to the policy improved. Policy advocacy through narratives can be easily made to further improve nation shared belief on the new policy or policy reforms.

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Source: Author.

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Notes on contributors

Ayetenew Abie

Ayetenew Abie is BA holder in educational planning and management and an MA holder in social psychology. I am currently instructor and PhD student (policy and leadership in education) in Bahr Dar University, Ethiopia. I do have two article publications. I have been teaching social psychology and education policy and leadership courses for several years in HEIs. I have conducted more than six research manuscripts and presented in international and national conferences organized by HEIs. Previously, I was quality assurance officer for 3 years in Jigjiga University. My main research interests are educational change initiatives, education policy and leadership, education and institutional work culture, education quality, teacher education and development, academic achievement, learning initiatives, human capital, community psychology, social psychology, organizational behavior and related others.