Appreciation of diversity and inclusion in Sub-Sahara Africa: The socioeconomic implications

Abstract

Africa is one of the most diverse continents in the world. The diversity in Africa, especially sub-Sahara, is normally centered around culture, ethnicity, gender, religion, etc. However, commentators assert that people of African descent encounter similar challenges and therefore point to the need for integration to realize the full benefit of its diversity. The call from commentators comes on the heels of diversity’s critical impact on growth and development. Notable among these elements of diversity is ethnicity, which sometimes bring predicament to the continent in the form of ethnic conflicts among others. Diversity in Sub-Sahara Africa (SSA) coupled with the advent of globalization puts pressure on societies as well as on organizations to appreciate its relevance due to the benefit derived when managed efficiently to ensure inclusion. A well-managed diverse environment fosters inclusion which can translate into growth and development. On the other hand, if diversity is improperly managed, it may have a detrimental effect on both societies and organizations. In the context of this article, ethnicity, which is one of the major drivers of diversity in SSA, is the main subject underlining the importance of diversity and inclusion. This article therefore argues that acknowledging and appreciating ethnicity is central to the creation of an inclusive society and organizations in SSA. Proper management of diversity undergirded by ethnicity have a positive correlation to socioeconomic growth and development. Further, this article posits that exploring and harnessing ethnicity within a diverse environment deepens the sense of belonging of individuals leading to efficiency and productivity in organizations, and by extension, in the larger society. In this regard, ethnicity is a significant element of diversity and ignoring it can derail the process of inclusion. This article employs in-depth literature review to explore how efficient management of ethnicity in a diverse environment can promote inclusion in SSA. Emphasis is placed on ethnicity, diversity, inclusion and its associated socioeconomic implications.

Keywords:

• diversity
• inclusion
• ethnicity
• socioeconomics
• Sub-Sahara Africa

PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT

Diversity and inclusion is conceptualized as the acknowledgement and appreciation of individual differences. In this regard, diversity is studied to ensure inclusion in societies and organizations. To this end, it is necessary to properly manage the diverse nature of SSA to achieve the needed inclusion in improving the socioeconomic wellbeing of the people. Ethnicity is an important element of diversity in SSA and accounts for most of the conflicts resulting in instability, which hampers socioeconomic development. Clearly, ethnicity has a profound effect on the socioeconomic activities in SSA and managing it effectively can enhance development. This article describes diversity and inclusion in an ethnic perspective to help societies and organizations in SSA to factor the concept into their developmental strategies.

1. Introduction

Diversity has been defined by scholars in different ways. A suitable description put forward by Daya (2014) portray diversity as the representation of all forms of visible and invisible differences including race, gender, ethnicity, disability, sexual orientation, education, class, rank, age, etc. O’Mara and Richter (2014, p. 1) also describes diversity as the “variety of differences and similarities or dimensions among people such as culture, nationality, education, personality type,” etc. In a more practical sense, diversity in the society or work groups is a tool for making quality decisions as well as producing superior creativity (Cunningham, 2008; Gruenfeld, Mannix, Williams, & Neale, 1996; Phillips, Mannix, Neale, & Gruenfeld, 2004), which enhance efficiency and productivity. Cox and Blake (1991) add that a properly managed diverse society or organization has a competitive advantage.

Diversity would not promote the desired competitive advantage undergirded by efficiency and productivity if inclusion is not attained. Inclusion is therefore described as the acknowledgement and appreciation of individuals’ unique characteristics within a diverse society (Daya, 2014). A more elaborate definition of inclusion is put forward by O’Mara and Richter (2014, p. 1) as “how diversity is leveraged to create a fair, equitable, healthy and high-performing organization or community where all individuals are respected, feel engaged and motivated and their contributions toward meeting organization and societal goals are valued”. A critical examination of the description of inclusion attests to the notion that to create a competitive society or organization, diversity needs to be managed to ensure inclusivity. The definition and description by O’Mara. and Richter (2014) and Daya (2014), indicates that diversity is examined to ensure inclusion, promote efficiency and productivity in organizations and societies. Mor Barak (2015, p. 8) buttress the description by asserting that diversity and inclusion make “business sense”.

Similarly, inclusion is also defined as the utilization of diversity to create an equitable, fair, productive and efficient society or organization in which members feel belonged and respected irrespective of their differences (O’Mara. & Richter, 2014). The description of diversity and inclusion highlights its critical effect on societies and organizations. It may therefore be inferred that group performance is directly affected by the quality of interactions among group members. The efficiency and productivity of societies as well as organizations largely depend on the cordiality found among its members, making diversity and inclusion an important aspect of any group of people, including SSA.

The desired cordiality within a society is found among individuals and groups from various ethnic backgrounds. As per the definition of inclusion by O’Mara. and Richter (2014), a pre-requisite is the appreciation of individuals’ unique background. In this regard, ethnicity, which is a demographic variable (Shin & Park, 2013), is found in diverse organizations and societies. Clearly, ethnicity is one of the underlining factors in the process of ensuring inclusivity. This article employs the primordial view in describing ethnicity (Geertz, 1963; Isaacs, 1975; Stack, 1986), although there are other descriptions which turn to depart from this perspective, such as epiphenomenon, which describes ethnicity as an entity that is built and sustained by an unequal economy or exploitation through economic activities (Hechter, 1978). On the other hand, situational phenomenon of ethnicity is described as a situation where individuals choose to be part of an ethnic group if they find it beneficial (Nagata, 1974; Okamura, 1981). Subjective phenomenon of ethnicity is viewed as an element that is built through negotiation in one’s life. Subjective phenomenon is a continuous process of life and has no connection to any context such as Africa, Asia or America, rather has a lot to do with the needs of life (Herzog, 1984; Smith, 1984). The primordial view of ethnicity describes it as a given characteristic, received at birth, passed on from predecessors of human society and unchangeable (Geertz, 1963; Isaacs, 1975; Stack, 1986). This article subscribes to the primordial view since it argues that an individual’s ethnic identity is unchangeable, making it an indispensable characteristic and should be appreciated to ensure inclusion in an organization and by extension, the larger society.

One of the importance of diversity and inclusion management relates to how it can positively affect the bottom-line of organizations and societies in general. The process is fuelled by the interaction between society and economic activities normally referred to as socioeconomics. Socioeconomics can be described as the interplay between economic science and social philosophy, ethics and human dignity (Lutz, 2009). Dwelling on the description of Lutz (2009), socioeconomic is therefore geared toward fostering efficiency and productivity in the society. Similarly, it may also be described as economic activity affected and shaped by social dynamics (American Psychological Association, 2007). In this regard, the efficient management of diversity and inclusion will have a positive correlation to socioeconomics since both concepts deals with the interaction within the society, buttressing the importance of diversity and inclusion (Frith, 2016). This article employs ethnicity as a major driver of diversity and seek to portray it as an important element in fostering inclusion, which translates into vibrant socioeconomic activities in SSA.

The trend of argument in this article is organized in the following manner. The next section explores the importance and challenges of diversity and inclusion. Subsequently, the need for the management of diversity and inclusion in SSA is highlighted, followed by a discussion of ethnicity as a major driver regarding the concept. The last section prior to conclusion portrays the socioeconomic implication of diversity and inclusion in SSA.

2. The importance and challenges of diversity and inclusion management

2.1. Importance and benefit of diversity and inclusion management

A diverse society or organization has been identified by Farndale, Biron, Briscoe, and Raghuram (2015) to constitute a workforce, which is creative in nature. Further, the creativity found in a diverse society or organization has been identified as a source of competitiveness and is evident in the definition and description put forward by O’Mara. and Richter (2014) and Daya (2014). Although diversity is an important aspect of the management literature, its benefit would be fully realized if translated into inclusion, creating a competitive work and societal environment. Diversity and inclusion is not a discipline on its own, rather it hinges on management, psychology and sociology (Ferndale et al. 2015). The management of diversity has become a critical aspect of global businesses and dynamics within societies since a properly managed diverse workforce has great competitive advantage. As indicated earlier, Mor Barak (2015, p. 8) succinctly describes diversity and inclusion as a concept that makes “business sense”. The assertion translates into a competitive society due to high level of socioeconomic development. Further, a greater benefit of a diverse society or workforce is its ability to produce quality decision and creativity (Cunningham, 2008; Gruenfeld et al., 1996; Phillips et al., 2004). In this regard, diversity and inclusion management is an indispensable aspect of any organization and society, enforcing the importance of approaching it with the needed value (Cox & Blake, 1991). In view of the importance of diversity and inclusion, its effective management is a recipe for competitiveness (Florida & Tingali 2004; Sharma, 2016).

Most diversity and inclusion constructs recognize two kinds of differences in organizations or societies. These differences are those easily identified characteristics such as age, gender, ethnicity, nationality and employees’ seniority, to mention a few; likewise, the other less observable ones are set of knowledge, skills, experience and values possessed by group members (Cox & Blake1991; Gelfand, Khun, & Radhakrishnan, 1996; Kilduff, Angelmar, & Mehra, 2000). The relevance of managing diversity is to create an inclusive environment, which facilitates the sense of belongingness. Inclusion, therefore, is the acknowledgement and appreciation of individuals’ unique characteristics within a diverse society (Daya, 2014).

The importance of inclusion in a diverse environment has prompted scholars to create awareness regarding its management (Roberson, 2006), examine psychology in the social sphere (Brewer, 1991) and increase research in this regard (Mor Barak, 2000). It therefore positions inclusion as the target of diversity research, since it makes it meaningful with respect to attaining organizational and societal goals. Further, it has become important for scholars to delve into aspects of the concept such as ethnicity, which borders on social psychology. The approach will assist in realizing its full benefit. To this end, diversity and inclusion is emerging as a potent management concept due to its benefit to organizations and societies.

2.2. Challenges of diversity and inclusion management

The benefits of diversity and inclusion does not come without challenges. Studies in diversity has been characterized by challenges associated with “discrimination, bias, affirmative action and tokenism” (Shore et al., 2009, p. 1262). Further, other studies have also highlighted challenges found among minority groups’ experiences in the work place, drawing attention to trends such as the glass ceiling effect (Cox & Nkomo, 1990; Wirth, 2001), differences in salaries (Ashraf, 1996; Blau & Beller, 1988) and segregation (Anker, 1998; Ibarra, 1995), to mention a few. Although, the quantum of empirical literature is a great source of relevant information (Jackson & Joshi, 2011), there is the need for further studies into diversity and inclusion concept. Theories of diversity and inclusion, which began about three decades ago, seem to be in two-fold. The first highlights discrimination in the workplace, the second analyses the effects of diversity on work-related outcomes (Milliken & Martins, 1996). In this regard, both theories are linked to the interaction of individuals and its associated effects. One of the factors fuelling the interaction among individuals is ethnicity, a constituent of demographic diversity (Shin & Park, 2013), which normally depicts differences in a society.

The challenges in managing diversity to ensure inclusion identified by scholars are normally found in the health sector (Ali, Burns & Grant., 2013; Hunt, 2007), hospitality (Gröschl, 2011), public (Harrisr & Foster, 2010), sports (Spracklen, Hylton, & Long, 2006), local councils (Senyucel & Phillpott, 2011), the private sector (Colgan, 2011; Hvidman & Andersen, 2013; Lee Cooke & Saini, 2012), etc. A common challenge that runs through the management of diversity and inclusion in various contexts is the marginalization of minority groups who are of different background (Milliken & Martins, 1996).

The challenge regarding marginalization defeats the purpose of diversity and inclusion since uniqueness is not appreciated and inclusivity is not realized (Shore et al., 2009). It may therefore be inferred from the description of inclusion that group performance is directly affected by the quality of interactions among group members. However, ensuring an effective work group within societies has been met with challenges revealed through studies in various diverse contexts (Stewart & Johnson, 2009; Swann, Kwan, Polzer, & Milton, 2003), such as social categorization and further re-categorization in most communities (Berry, 1993; Tajfel, 1981). The need for an efficient strategy regarding the management of diversity is relevant in social conflict prevention and more importantly since the fluidity of national borders are increasing at a very fast rate due to globalization. The appreciation of individuals of different backgrounds is most likely to be the panacea to social conflict in this regard.

Clearly, social identity, which emanates from ethnicity and culture, depends on an individual’s uniqueness and sense of inclusiveness (Ethier & Deaux, 1994). The appreciation of one’s uniqueness as well as ensuring inclusivity underscore the importance of ethnicity in the process. In other words, ethnicity drives an individual’s sense of association since values observed by groups are deeply embedded in their ethnic identity, making it very critical in the quest for an inclusive environment.

As diversity field evolves, studies are centered on how diversity may be employed to ensure efficiency and productivity in organizations and societies (Gonzalez & DeNisi, 2009; Homan et al., 2008;). Similarly, researchers are working toward the creation of a management approach that will foster the integration of individuals with diverse background, which will lead to an inclusive society (Cox & Blake, 1991; Thomas & Ely, 1996). In other words, the trend points to the need for the creation of an environment where diverse individuals feel belonged (Bilimoria, Joy, & Liang, 2008; Roberson, 2006).

Sayed and Ozbilgin (2009) argue that effective diversity management is most likely to be realized when various structures within the society are been supported by institutions to ensure the participation of all individuals and groups in the process. It is worth noting that nations’ competitiveness is normally measured by index such as the one created by the world economic forum (Delgado, Ketels, Porter, & Stern, 2012), however an elusive but potent element determining the competitiveness of nations in the face of globalization is the collective effect of diversity and inclusion(Hunt, Yee, Prince, & Dixon-Fyle, 2018). SSA, which is known for its diversity in terms of ethnicity, could capitalize on an effective management approach to become competitive.

Although the concept ensuring the sense of belonging is becoming very important in the arena of diversity and inclusion research, it still needs much attention to make it more useful in both societal and organizational management literature. Inclusion may be realized if the ethnic identity of individuals is recognized and appreciated in a diverse environment.

3. The need for diversity and inclusion management in Sub-Sahara Africa

3.1. Brief overview of Sub-Sahara Africa

This section briefly describes the geographical location, religion, culture and ethnicity of SSA. Geographically, SSA per the description by the United Nations (UN) is the area of Africa that lies south of the Sahara. In other words, the UN asserts that SSA countries consist of nations fully or partially located in the south of the Sahara (United Nations, 2008). In contrast, the countries north of the Sahara are classified as part of the Arab league. Although, Somalia, Djibouti, Comoros and Mauritania are geographically located in SSA, they are part of the Arab world (European Union, 2016).

SSA countries are predominantly Christian, however, there are nations with Islamic majorities such as those found in the Horn of Africa (Djibouti and Somalia), in the Sahel and Sudan regions (the Gambia, Guinea, Mali, Sierra Leone, Niger and Senegal). Eritrea and Ethiopia also have a significant Islamic community as well as the Swahili coast of Tanzania and Kenya with Hindu majority found in Mauritius on the African continent (Encyclopaedia Britannic, 2003).

SSA is also noted for regions which are normally divided into various linguistic cultural groups such as the one found in Congo and Niger. Religiously, Congo-Niger-speakers believe in ancestral spirit, priest of territorial spirit as well as the calamity caused by the abandonment of ancestor spirits (Baldick, 1997).

SSA is diverse such that communities, villages and cities normally have their own beliefs and traditional systems. SSA societies are communal in nature, projecting the needs of many over individuals. Communal nature of the societies give expression to the various individuals and extended families who share responsibilities in the society. The extended family system is one of the fundamental aspects of most African societies. The distinction between the Western system and that of SSA can be found in the way members of the community relate, such as any older person is referred to as an uncle or auntie. Siblings of one’s parent are fathers or mothers, not uncles and aunties respectively. Further, cousins are referred to as brothers and sisters, deepening the relationship among members. The communality can also be seen in ethics, where it makes it difficult for an individual in the society who does not tow a path to look different. Another point of departure from the Western approach is gender imbalance, where women in the society are normally seen to be subservient to men, inhibiting their potentials in most instances (Richmond & Gestrin, 2009).

Ethnicity in Sub-Saharan countries is very pervasive, making it a core aspect of most communities. Most ethnic groups stretch from one country to the other and this is evident in instances such as Hausa in Nigeria, Niger, Ghana, Chad, Cameroon, Cote d’Ivoire and Sudan. Likewise, Yoruba in Nigeria and Benin, Oromo in Ethiopia and Kenya, Igbo in Nigeria and Cameroon (Achebe, 2000). Similarly, the Akan in Ghana can be found in Côte d’Ivoire while the Amhara in Ethiopia are also found in Sudan, Somalia, Eritrea and Djibouti. Another ethnic group that cuts across extensively is the Fulani in Guinea, Nigeria, Cameroon, Senegal, Mali, Sierra Leone Central African Republic, Burkina Faso, Benin, Niger, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Ghana, Chad, Sudan, Togo and Côte d’Ivoire. In addition, the Shona ethnic group in Zimbabwe can also be found in Mozambique (Lewis, 2007; Suberu, 2001).

The pervasive nature of ethnicity in SSA underscores its importance in diversity and inclusion. Further, ethnicity is one of the core constituents of demographic diversity (Shin & Park, 2013), and has a direct bearing on other diversity elements. The appreciation of one’s ethnicity as a fundamental characteristic of any individual promotes the sense of belonging and translates into inclusion. In this regard, the appreciation of diversity and inclusion in the societal context under discussion may be an exercise in futility if ethnicity is not given the needed attention.

3.2. The present economy of Sub-Sahara Africa

Economically, the continent is dominated by Nigeria and South Africa, with an economic output that account for about three quarters of the region’s gross domestic product (GDP) (Olamosu & Wynne, 2015). Similarly, a study in 2005, 2011 and 2013 by The Economist revealed significant development in the areas of agriculture, retail, banking, infrastructure, natural resources and telecommunications (Chironga, Leke, van Wamelen, & Lund, 2011; Zoogah, Peng, & Woldu, 2015), increasing the economic potential of SSA. The present economic situation of SSA makes the prediction by the Economist Group in the year 2013 that the continent will be hosting 20 fastest growing economies in the world in the coming years a reality (Zoogah et al., 2015).

The economic history of SSA can be grouped under four main periods (United Nations, 2012). The periods are described as follows:

1960–1980: The period saw many economies within the region attaining an average annual GDP of 4.8% rivalling the growth rate of many other nations in the world (Iliffe, 2007).

1980–2000: The period encountered great turbulence due to external forces such as the sky-rocketing of oil prices, unfavourable trade terms and increased real rates of interest. During this period, growth declined with countries in the sub-region, registering an average GDP of 2.1% (Iliffe, 2007).

2000–2007: The beginning of the millennium saw a considerable economic growth due to the increase of prices of primary products. A significant GDP growth of 3.9 was registered in this period (Iliffe, 2007).

2008 to present: Presently, the economy of the sub-region is being impacted by a level of uncertainty due to the stagnation in the European and American markets, resulting in the decrease in demand for raw materials. Similarly, the slowdown in the Chinese economy compounds the situation in SSA economy. The recent economic prospects of the sub-region and Africa has received favourable response from the economic elites leading to the coining of the terminology “Africa rising” (Olamosu & Wynne, 2018). However, it will take a sustained effort, which is already manifesting in Nigeria and South Africa, to realize a significant reduction in poverty (Olamosu & Wynne, 2018). The sub-region needs efficient management approach regarding the economy and it will not be far from right to take advantage of the diverse nature of the region by effectively managing diversity and inclusion to become a core competence. Effective management of diversity and inclusion can be a remedy for economic challenges. For example, the global recession, which has been found to be responsible for significant turbulence in various economies (International Monetary Fund [IMF], 2013; World Bank, 2013), may be resolved by employing effective diversity management since it produce quality decision, creativity and enhance productivity (Cunningham, 2008).

4. Ethnicity as a major driver of diversity and inclusion management in Sub-Sahara Africa

4.1. Ethnicity and diversity in Sub-Sahara Africa

The history of Africa made it somehow difficult for many nations on the continent (except a very few like Botswana) to build their societies on indigenous values and heritage. African nations are mostly seen through the European prism, suppressing their traditional institutions, which embody their sociocultural practices. The dichotomy regarding the present state of countries in SSA points to a complexity that needs an in-depth understanding of the society to create an inclusive environment. Further, Deng (1997) argues that a blend of the current state and that of ethnic realities will create the desired inclusive society in the sub-region.

Dwelling on the commentary of Deng (1997) regarding the state of African societies, an individual’s world view, historical experience and aspiration constitute his or her ethnicity. Further, Deng indicated that ethnicity has a significant impact on one’s behavioural pattern, language, physical characteristics, etc. Based on the influence of ethnicity on the sociocultural dynamics within the African society, he asserts that when individuals are deprived of their ethnicity, the loss of their sense of purpose and direction is eminent. He concluded by describing the traditional African society as an institution that functions through an association of ethnic groups, forming the socioeconomic and communal relationship which translate into collectivism, and by extension, creating inclusivity.

As indicated earlier in this article, Africa is one of the most diverse continents in the world with no exception to SSA. Further, the diversity found within the society has ethnicity as one of its undergirding factors and acknowledging its importance has a positive correlation to the effectiveness of diversity and inclusion management. Ethnicity is a critical element of diversity within the societal context under discussion since it has been the source of most conflicts (Deng, 1997; Department for International Development [DFID], 2001).

4.2. Ethnicity and conflict

Presently, conflicts on the African continent, and for that matter SSA, has been identified to have ethno-regional undertones. Nations in SSA are created along ethnic lines and this is often used by politicians to advance their agenda. To describe ethnic conflict holistically, it is an issue that exist independently as a basic reality within the society and used as a tool for political expediency (Deng, 1997).

Conflicts across Africa is responsible for 2% loss of economic growth annually (DFID, 2001). Going forward, the report indicates that ethnic conflicts in SSA prevents nations from creating the needed opportunity for the population. Opportunities are not being created due to high military spending in most cases. Conflicts on the continent deprives the sub-region of the needed foreign investments, since it is seen to be a high-risk territory. Further, the report points out that hatred emanating from ethnicity has been used as a tool by politicians and belligerents to escalate conflicts, deepening division in the society and hampering the effort to ensure peace and development. A notable case worth mentioning is the perennial xenophobic attacks in South Africa. It is a fact that people from other African countries were attracted by the economic strength of South Africa only to be later subjected to xenophobic attacks because they are assumed to come with a view to “taking” their jobs.

Other ethnic-related tensions can also be identified in Zambia where there was an attempt to bar a presidential candidate on ethnic grounds. A similar incident happened in Cote d’Ivoire when Alassane Quattara was barred from contesting the presidency due to his parent’s nationality (Chogugudza, 2008). The political tension which ensued in Zambia and Cote d’Ivoire underscores the importance of ethnicity in SSA regarding the quest to create an inclusive environment.

Per the narration regarding ethnic tensions in SSA, it may be inferred that organizations cannot be left out of the equation since it is a microcosm of the larger society. Organizations form an important component of the larger society and challenges such ethnic tension derails it from achieving set goals and hamper socioeconomic development. Efficient management of diversity and inclusion with emphasis on ethnicity may have the capacity to mitigate challenges militating against the efficiency and productivity of organizations in SSA. Similarly, diversity and inclusion management has the potential to reduce the complexities within SSA since it takes into consideration the differences found within organizations and societies. More importantly, ethnicity which forms a major aspect of diversity in the societal context under discussion, will play a positive role if managed properly.

5. Socioeconomic implication of diversity and inclusion management in Sub-Sahara Africa

Socioeconomics is loosely used to refer to economics in the society (Eatwell, Milgate, & Newman, 1989) and may also be described as how social processes shape economic activities. More precisely, it is described as the interaction among individuals and groups regarding social capital as well as the formation of social norms (Becker, 1974). Juxtaposing the description of socioeconomics to diversity and inclusion management, the social interaction aspect speaks to the differences found within the society and how it is harnessed to ensure development. For example, the relationship between socioeconomics and diversity and inclusion is evident in how South African mines employed Fanagalo, a pidgin mainly based on Zulu as well as Portuguese, English and other African languages such as Xhosa to enhance communication in a multi-ethnic environment (Kroulek, 2011). The approach seeks to foster inclusion by combining various ethnic languages in the workplace to ensure efficient running of the mines. The link between socioeconomic and diversity and inclusion, driven by ethnicity, highlights the need for a suitable approach to the management of a diverse environment. As indicated earlier, ethnicity is a demographic element, which is almost unchangeable per the primordial description, making it a significant element influencing the management of diversity and inclusion.

It is increasingly becoming clear that SSA’s low level of socioeconomic development is not entirely caused by colonialism, rather self-inflicted incidence such as ethnic conflicts (Noyoo, 2000). Furthermore, studies have argued that ethnic fractionalization has a negative impact on economic growth and promotes civil wars (Montalvo & Reynal-Querol, 2005), indicating the need for a robust approach in managing the society. The goal of diversity and inclusion management may be a suitable strategy since it seeks to uphold and appreciate differences. Diversity and inclusion concepts deal with the differences in the society with ethnicity being one of the core element. To this end, the appreciation of diversity with emphasis on ethnicity will ensure the needed inclusivity among individuals in the society, translating into a desired inclusion. Therefore, diversity and inclusion has a positive correlation to socioeconomic development.

In conclusion, SSA stands to gain tremendously from the diverse nature of the society. Diversity in organizations and societies have proven to be a panacea for low levels of efficiency and productivity in recent times. In this regard, the efficient management of diversity and inclusion will positively influence socioeconomic development. Further, it is inherent to ensure effective management of diversity and inclusion at all levels with ethnicity taking the center spot within SSA. Ethnicity determines an individual’s identity per the primordial description, making it an important element in identifying and appreciating differences in organizations and societies. Therefore, the much-needed inclusion in organizations and societies can be realized when diversity management is undergirded by ethnicity. As per the importance of ethnicity in ensuring inclusivity indicated earlier in this article, the much-desired creativity, competitiveness and productivity in the society may be attained by effective diversity and inclusion management, this will positively impact socioeconomic activities. To this end, ethnicity is a driving force regarding differences in SSA and acknowledging it in the management of diversity and inclusion will enhance socioeconomic development.

Correction

This article has been republished with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.

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The authors received no direct funding for this research.

Notes on contributors

Erasmus Kofi Appiah

Erasmus Kofi Appiah is a doctoral candidate at the Graduate School of Business and Leadership, University of Kwazulu Natal - South Africa. He is also an independent academic staff at the School of Business Leadership - University of South Africa. His research interest is in organizational behaviour, specifically diversity and inclusion.