Social Factors Affecting Religious Institutions in the Maintenance of Peace and Harmony in East Hararghe Zone: The Case of Selected Religious Institutions

Abstract

The study investigated social factors affecting the maintenance of peace and harmony by religious institutions in East Hararghe zone of Oromia region. In doing so, the study employed a qualitative research approach as the issue deals with people’s perspectives and lived experiences. Explanatory cross-sectional and case study research designs were employed to uncover the reasons for the inability to maintain peace and harmony and go deep into the selected cases, respectively. The study used key informant interview, in-depth interview, focus group discussion, and published and unpublished documents to gather relevant data. A purposive sampling technique was employed to select informants who have sufficient knowledge in the area. The study employed thematic analysis to sort-out important themes. The findings of the study demonstrated that lack of entertaining ethnolinguistic differences among followers of the religious institutions, lack of good relationship and mutual support between religious institutions, internal divisions within the institutions, lack of knowledge of theology and modern education, capacity, and spiritual integrity by religious fathers, power struggle and lack of trust among religious fathers, and unequal treatment of religious institutions by government as social factors affecting religious institutions in maintaining peace and harmony. The study recommends that religious institutions should entertain ethnolinguistic differences of their followers to the level expected of them. Additionally, the government should treat religious institutions found in the study area equally and entertain their cases officially to maintain peace and harmony successfully.

Keywords:

• harmony
• peace
• religious institutions
• religious fathers
• social factors

1. Introduction

Religious institutions are sources of important values such as empathy, nonviolence, compassion, and truthfulness, which serve as the basis for maintaining peace and harmony in a society (llo, 2015). Religion and its institutions also have considerable significance in developing critical peace-related values including openness to and even love for strangers, not insulting and maltreating others, including disbelievers, the suppression of unbridled ego and acquisitiveness, forgiveness, and humility (Gopin, 2000; Holy Quran, 6:108). Religious institutions also have a role to play in fostering the values of truth, justice, and mercy over deception and division by keeping their followers from telling lies and refraining them from evil and wrongdoings (Devine, 2017; Holy Bible, Psalm 34: 12–14).

However, religious institutions are under the influence of social, political, and other forces that affect them in maintaining peace and harmony. For illustration, the existence of societal members with a variety of socioeconomic statuses that in turn affect their level of involvement in cooperating with religious institutions in maintaining peace and harmony can be raised.

Religious institutions are exposed to bias (among others) that becomes one of the challenges in the maintenance of peace and harmony. For example, when the Oromo were evacuated and displaced in mass from the Somali region in 2018, none of the religious institutions condemned the issue publicly. Nevertheless, when conflict broke out in 2020 between the Ethiopian government and Tigray People’s Liberation Front (TPLF) in Tigray, the religious leaders/fathers, including the highest position holders, and the archbishop, came to the public and condemned the phenomenon through different means, giving media brief and other media outlets. Abune Mathias saying “I am not clear why they want to declare genocide on the people of Tigray” (VOA, May 2021; Observer Staff, The Guardian, May 2021). Similarly, the circumstances (biases) in the study sites are not far from the above-raised situation as they are suffering from the same problems.

To this end, conflicts such as inter-religious, inter-ethnic, political, and individual-level clashes are occurring here and there in the study site. For instance, as East Hararghe Police Commission Crime Investigation Directorate (2021) data and Negash Bedada’s (Bedada & Nahoo, 2020) program show, in June 2020, following the assassination of Artist Hachalu Hundessa, intense conflict happened and many Amhara ethnic and Orthodox (irrespective of their ethnic background) resident houses were burnt and individual properties were destroyed. For this study, three districts of east Hararghe zone (Haramaya, Kombolcha, and Karssa) were purposefully designated due to the fact that they are susceptible to violent conflicts (inter-religious, inter-ethnic, and individual-level conflicts). In support of this, the data obtained from East Hararghe police commission crime investigation directorate report (2021) indicate public/government or violent conflict cases (destruction of basic properties, damage of infrastructures, serious human physical injuries, murder, and rape) account for 108 in Haramaya, 157 in Karssa, and 240 in Kombolcha districts, whereas individual/non-violent conflict cases (like insulting, simple physical injuries, and intimidating) account for 59 in Haramaya, 142 in Karssa, and 168 in Kombolcha districts. Furthermore, the directorate explains the above-mentioned discords and conflicts usually happen because of farm land ownership, boundary, ethnic-based, and inheritance-related issues.

Tenaw (2018) conducted a study on the role of religious institutions in conflict management by considering the experience of the National Council of Churches of Kenya. It is the study in which he attempted to reveal both positive and negative contributions of religious institutions in conflict transformation, reconciliation, and stability, while it fails to address the factors affecting the institutions in maintaining peace and harmony. Additionally, Kassa (2014) conducted a comparative study on the role of faith-based civil society organizations in peacemaking in Ethiopia and South Sudan. The study endeavored to explore the role of faith-based civil society organizations with special reference to the issue of peace and reconciliation, and how it can be used in new and creative ways to further the process of genuine grass-roots democratization and thus promote good governance. His study, however, overlooked the factors affecting religious institutions in maintaining peace and harmony. Moreover, Tarekegn (2018) made a study on the roles of religious institutions in conflict resolution in Ethiopia, focusing on Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (EOTC). The study accentuated on the roles of religious institutions in conflict resolution, and limited itself to Orthodox religious institution only and overlooked the factors affecting this religion in maintaining peace and harmony. Furthermore, Bhutto and Munir (2014) conducted a study by focusing only on the roles that religious institutions play in maintaining peace and harmony. Similar to the above studies, their study, considering just Buddhism and Islam, ignored the factors affecting these religious institutions in maintaining peace and harmony. Besides, Abu-Nimer and Kadayifci-Orellana (2008) piloted research on Muslim peace-building actors in Africa and the Balkan context emphasizing on challenges and needs of Muslim peace-building actors. Their study failed to see the factors affecting the maintenance of peace and harmony by religious institutions and confined to only Muslim peace-building actors.

All the above-mentioned studies focused on the role of religious institutions in peacemaking, conflict management, and conflict resolution without considering the diverse factors affecting religious institutions. For this reason, the current research investigated the factors affecting religious institutions in their endeavour to maintain peace and harmony. Besides, the previous studies consulted above did not address the two religious institutions at a time: Islam and Orthodox Christianity while they included either Orthodox Christianity or Islam separately. Unlike the previous studies, this research gives due emphasis to the two religious institutions as they are dominant in the study area where Islam constitutes about 96.51% and Orthodox Christianity about 3.12% of the total population (Central Statistical Agency, 2007). Furthermore, there is no study conducted in the selected districts encompassing social factors affecting religious institutions in maintaining peace and harmony. As to the knowledge of the researchers, there is no study in the study area and even nationally conducted to address the same issue adequately.

Therefore, to fill the gap indicated above, the research aimed to identify the factors affecting religious institutions in maintaining peace and harmony in three selected districts of East Hararghe zone of Oromia region.

2. Research methods

2.1. Research approach

In this study, a qualitative research approach was employed because the subject under consideration requires an understanding of how others experience life and interpret meanings. As Creswell (2007) indicates, this approach is important to empower individuals to share their stories, hear their voices, and minimize the power relationship (allow flexibility) that exists between researchers and informants of the study. Moreover, it would help to explore attitudes, behaviors, and experiences through key informant interviews, focus group discussions, and in-depth interviews.

2.2. Research design

In complement to its objective, the study followed an explanatory cross-sectional study design and case study. As Bryman (2012) stated, cross-sectional study design is important to discover new ideas and insights and appropriate to allow flexibility to consider different aspects of the issue under investigation. The study design is also suitable to explain factors facing religious institutions in maintaining peace and harmony at a specific point in time for defined study populations. In addition, it is very useful to get an accurate portrayal of the situation using this research design. Besides, a case study research design was employed to generate an intensive examination of cases, in relation to theoretical analysis. To this end, three conflict cases were selected purposively (one case from each district). Accordingly, two conflicts in Haramaya district (violent conflict case 1) and Kombolcha district (violent conflict case 2) induced by Hachalu Hundessa’s assassination, and one conflict (violent conflict case 3) initiated by youths in Karssa District on 11 November 2019 were purposively selected.

2.3. Sources of data

2.3.1. Primary sources of data

In this study, in-depth interviews, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions (FGD) were employed because the researchers wanted to collect firsthand, accurate, and triangulated data. These data were collected from policemen (from the selected districts) using key informant interviews, followers and religious leaders of the two religions (Islam and Orthodox) employing in-depth interviews, and from preachers of Islam and Orthodox religions using FGDs.

2.3.2. Secondary sources of data

Secondary data sources used in the study were books, magazines, journal articles, and different published and unpublished documents.

2.4. Methods of data collection

For this study, first, data collection tools were prepared in English and then translated to Afan Oromo and Amharic before the data collection took place. Hence, the key informant interviews, in-depth interviews, and focus group discussions were conducted in Afan Oromo and Amharic, and later they were translated to English.

2.4.1. Key informant interview

The researchers had semi-structured interviews with key informants who were highly knowledgeable about the issue under investigation. In this particular method of data collection, issues related with factors hindering religious institutions in maintaining peace and harmony were thoroughly covered. Policemen of the districts were the key informant interviewees. Accordingly, depending on their position and responsibility, i.e. office holders, a total of three key informants (one from Haramaya District, one from Karssa District, and one from Kombolcha District) were purposefully selected for this study. The key informants were tape-recorded based on their permission, while the researchers were only allowed to take notes while having an interview with an informant from one of the districts.

2.4.2. In-depth interview

In-depth interviews were conducted with informants of the study using semi-structured interview guide, which allowed the researchers to re-sequence the questions and informants to respond in any manner they wanted. The main rationale for using this method is that it helps to better understand from different subgroups of the population on the social factors facing religious institutions in maintaining peace and harmony. The informants of the study for in-depth interview were followers and religious leaders of the two religions (Islam and Orthodox) of Haramaya District, Karssa District, and Kombolcha District. To contact these informants, churches and mosques in these districts were selected based on their administrative structure at district level (parish or district priesthood houses and council of Islamic Issues, respectively). Accordingly, Mark church and Alkadim mosque (from Haramaya District), St. Mary church and Nur Mosque (from Kombolcha District), and St. George and Nur Mosque (from Karssa District) were selected. A total of 22 in-depth interviewees were approached for the study as data were saturated with this number of interviewees. Most importantly, as Brounéus (2011) states, an in-depth interview offers a unique method and source of information since it provides research with depth, detail, and perspective on a certain research question, and at a certain moment in time. To capture the data adequately, the researchers used a tape recorder during all in-depth interviews.

2.4.3. Focus group discussion

The focus group discussion was vital to obtain the views of different discussants on factors affecting religious institutions in maintaining peace and harmony. Thus, a total of six FGDs (two FGDs in each district, one from preachers of Islam and one from preachers of Orthodox) were conducted. The six FGDs were sufficient to address preachers of the two religions as the remaining informants of the study were treated by key informant interviews and in-depth interviews. Each group comprised six participants with a total of 36 participants. These discussants were selected and identified purposefully based on their knowledge and experiences in maintaining peace and harmony in the study area. In addition, they were the participants who were able to express a range of views freely and actively on the subject under consideration. The researchers played a facilitator role in all FGDs sessions to probe the discussants to express their ideas freely. Data were captured through tape recording and taking notes to get every point raised in the discussions properly. The discussions lasted for about 53 minutes on average.

2.5. Sampling technique and sample size

This study used a purposive or judgmental sampling technique. As Singh (2006) indicated, this sampling technique is appropriate to get concrete data from a few selected individuals who have immense knowledge on a particular issue. The individuals who have rich experience and knowledge were approached through the suggestions of religious leaders. Therefore, informants who have abundant information and evidence on these specific issues like social factors facing religious institutions in maintaining peace and harmony were included. The researchers conducted in-depth interviews with the target populations of the study till data saturation point was reached. As a result, in this study, 58 informants were contacted.

2.6. Methods of data analysis

The data were presented and analysed thematically (qualitatively) as the study dealt with people’s attitudes, ideas, and concepts that were collected through key informant interviews, in-depth interviews, and focus group discussions. Before analyzing the data, first, data collected through Afan Oromo and Amharic were transcribed verbatim from a tape recorder and then translated to English. Consequently, key concepts and ideas were sorted out and categorized into themes in line with the objective of the study. Then, the data were analyzed thematically. According to Dawson (2007), thematic analysis is a qualitative data analysis method used to analyze data by their themes. As part of this method of data analysis, the data were presented in a narrative form to identify key social factors affecting religious institutions in maintaining peace and harmony. Data were coded based on their content vis-a-vis objective of the study, and then summarized and categorized into main themes of social factors affecting religious institutions in maintaining peace and harmony.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Social factors affecting religious institutions in maintaining peace and harmony

3.1.1. Lack of entertaining language diversity by religious institutions

As the study indicated, the religious institutions considered in the study lack proper entertainment of diversity that exists among their followers. They have a dearth of incorporating ethnic and linguistic differences among the followers. Followers of the religions do not well understand the teachings of the institutions as they were mostly taught by the language they do not understand. In the study area, the institutions are unable to preach religious teachings in different languages. To this end, Orthodox Church teaches in Amharic¹ language while the majority of the people speak Afan Oromo² and in Mosque uses Afan Oromo only where non-Afan Oromo speakers could not understand their teachings very well. As the study reveals, the institutions also inverted the queries of followers to other (political) issues particularly regarding learning by the language they understand. In connection to this, in-depth interviewees of Haramaya District elaborated that followers have to learn by the language they understand very well. Many things that are being conducted in the religious institution have to consider different ethnolinguistic communities as the followers can have different cultures and languages. However, in this church, dominantly they teach in Amharic language. The interviewee indicated ‘there are individuals who do not understand the language. However, if you ask them to learn by the language they understand, religious leaders perceive and label you as you have some other missions outside the religion”.

Similarly, another in-depth interviewee from Haramaya District further mentioned the scenario as follows:

In East Hararghe zone, in all areas including Karssa, Haramaya, and Kombolcha, mosques preach their teachings and doctrines by Afan Oromo. I think they perceive the residents of the zone (followers of Islam religion) as speakers of Afan Oromo. There are none Afan Oromo speakers in the zone, though their number is very small (II- 19, 2021).

From the above response, one can realize that religious fathers were not willing to address different language speakers because of their inability to entertain diversities. In addition, the two religions (Orthodox and Islam) preach in Sunday education and Medrasa by Amharic and Afan Oromo, respectively with no or less use of other languages. The study is in line with Abbas (2016) that discloses learning by multilingual way and openness to others has its contribution in establishing a harmonious relationship with the surrounding ethnoreligious and linguistic communities.

Religious institutions sticking to specific language reveals the tendency of maintaining status quo regarding traditions in religious practices. Interest to reform and expanding their religious services by embracing more languages and culture is considered as a threat that affects status-quo maintained in the church/mosque. Quest coming from the followers in this regard is also politicized and may lead to expulsion.

Correspondingly, from violent conflict case two (2), the study has uncovered failure of entertaining differences by religious institutions that affect them in maintaining peace and harmony. The institutions ignored followers’ learning by their language. Supporting this, during the in-depth interview, one of the interviewees elucidated the case as follows:

There is a question of language for long period in this church. There are also several followers who have changed their religion because of their inability to learn and to be preached by their language. We submitted an application to the church stating our interest to learn in our language to understand and spread our religion to others. the religious leaders perceived us as we have another mission/issue (they misinterpreted our concern to another subject). Due to lack of entertaining diversity, our petition did not get acceptance by religious leaders of the institution. It has deep-rooted influence in this regard, in entertaining diversity. That is why there is external pressure on the institution; how could you not learn your religion by your language? There was a preacher who used to preach the doctrine of the religion in 2012 E.C in Afan Oromo. Nevertheless, they fired him in alleging him as he was to burn a church, and attack and kill priests of the church (II- 7, 2021).

From the above response, it is possible to understand that Orthodox Church intentionally overlooked using of other languages outside Amharic in their daily teachings. To this end, they alleged the followers who raise a question (including official application) of learning by their language. This action of the religious fathers aggravates the influence from the surrounding community on Orthodox religion adherents. It implies that the religious fathers have a tendency of reflecting ethnocentrism by which they view languages and cultural values of others as inferior to their culture. This is why youth targeted Orthodox followers during the violence erupted against the assassination of Oromo singer, Hachalu Hundessa in most parts of the study areas. And this can also be linked to the past ecclesiastic legacy of the country that demolishes the rights and privileges of other religions and recognition for the existence and reverence of other ethnic groups in Ethiopia.

Similarly, an in-depth interview from Kombolcha District further stated:

There is a big gap in learning the language you understand in both religions (Islam and Orthodox). So, in the area, out of Afan Oromo speakers, others like Gurage, Amhara, and others are not getting what they are supposed to get concerning the teachings and doctrines of the religion. You know this is not the case only here rather it is all over the country. For instance, if you go to Gurage, they get the very teachings of the religion by the language they can understand (Guragegna). If you go to Somale, all teachings in the mosques are only being delivered in Somali, and it is the same in Amhara region and any other places in Ethiopia. So, this means others (excluding a particular ethnic group of the region) are not understanding well about their religion (II- 18, 2021).

It is possible to understand from the above data that religious institutions are using only a certain ethnic groups’ language, considering the region in which religious institutions are in all areas (except Orthodox religion). And due to this, the remaining adherents of the religion (outside the ethnic group in which the institution is in) do not capture, understand and even defend their religion as they could not get full packages of knowledge learning by the language they comprehend. Hence, without followers’ familiarity with their respective religions, religious institutions’ works concerning maintaining peace and harmony would not be fruitful.

3.2. Internal divisions among religious fathers and the community

Religious fathers were seen when they divide themselves based on ethnic group membership and the language they speak. As the finding of the study pointed out, they do not only divide themselves on a certain ground, but they also intend to harm one another. Connected to this, an in-depth interviewee from Haramaya District elaborated that religious fathers do not trust each other beyond saying (they do not live what they say in practice). Things that are creating problems here are related to trust; religious fathers are putting followers at risk. The interviewee further stated that the main factor that contributes to lack of trust among religious fathers is related to their extremist outlook on language and ethnicity matters, which reveals the presence of politically driven conspiracy among them.

Similarly, focus group discussants from Kombolcha District stated that sometimes religious institutions face a challenge from absolute categorizations of their members based on their ethnic group identity like Guragie, Somali, Oromo, Amhara, and so on. Besides, they even go down up to the level of categorizing themselves at a zone³ they came from like Jima, Bale, Shoa, etc. This ethnolinguistic division among religious fathers make their respective followers not to respect them and adhere to their guidance. Focus group discussants of Haramaya District also stated the divisions have entered into employment process of, for instance, the church starting from the top hierarchical structure or leadership positions (Addis Ababa hagere sibket); there is a time when the institution asked where a person is from (his/her ethnic group). In complement to this, in relation to violent conflict case one (1), the study found out that there are religious fathers who prioritize their ethnic group over others and their religion and the fathers are also in conflict with each other on their identity. People choose to be together (to trust and build a relationship) with their ethnic group members than their religions.

Similarly, in connection with violent conflict case two (2) and three (3), the study further found out that due to their backgrounds, including their ethnicity and language they speak, religious fathers reached up to fighting one another. Regarding this, an in-depth interviewee from Kombolcha District elaborated the case as follows:

There was an internal division among religious fathers themselves. In this compound, starting from guard to religious leaders, there is a time when they are divided into three or four. They divided themselves into different groups i.e. Gojjame, Salale, Gurage, Tigre, Gondare and the like. In this religious institution, Kombolcha Merriam Church, they reached up to beating and attacking each other in front of followers. Because of them (their unethical act), we lost a number of followers. The good thing is those who quarrelled with each other at that time are not around now. However, still, there is division that affects religious institutions in their effort to maintain peace and harmony (II- 7, 2021).

The interpretation here is that one of the reasons that religious institutions failed to maintain peace and harmony is a deep categorization of religious fathers into many categories (based on the ethnic group they belong to). Furthermore, religious fathers are victims of ethnic divisions induced conflicts. It is also possible to understand from the above data that one of the reasons that makes followers of the religions not to respect religious fathers are deep internal division, misconduct, and disrespect that the fathers have for one another. Because of this, followers’ interest to learn religious teachings would be declined. As a result of this, adherents’ chance to be shaped with religious doctrines and principles that dictate about living in peace and love with neighbors and all human races will be less. Hence, followers and eventually religious institutions would contribute less/negatively to peace and harmony of the community.

Furthermore, religious fathers have internal categorizations based on familial and ancestral categories that challenge them in maintaining peace and harmony. There is a tribal split in religious institutions based on warra⁴ thereby resulting in a difference in perception among followers of the religion and spreading disturbances among themselves. In support of this, one of the informants from Karssa District mentioned the following:

We have internal disputes among ourselves (Islam). They classified themselves as (Suugiyaa, Waabi, and Kuadijaa⁵). These classifications are based on local tribes of Hararghe community. For instance, Kuadijaa is well known in Kombolcha District as its members are from there. Most of the time, these groups disrespect and degrade other groups (except theirs/tribe). They maltreat well-known and former sheiks of the religious institution and want to replace the one from their tribe (II- 6, 2021).

Strengthening the above notion, an in-depth interviewee from Kombolcha District further stated:

There is a category in a single religion (for instance, in Islam) saying Moluda and Tohidaa based on the previous problems that existed in the religion. Again, there is Sufiyaa category. For the last three to four years, there were violent discords among them that reached up to beating one another by Mencca and ulee⁶ (II- 17, 2021).

From the above illustrations, it is possible to understand that some of the categories of the religions had been practicing power and have an association with the government. Consequently, Kuadija tribe is dominant and has been manipulating other tribes for many years. It is due to their familial and tribe-level divisions that religious institutions are unable to maintain peace and harmony effectively. Similar to the finding of this study, Ashafa and Wuye (2006) uncovered that denominational differences and sectionalism are affecting religious institutions’ capacity in maintaining peace and harmony. Additionally, Tenaw (2007) revealed that there were internal divisions within the church, for instance.

The religious institutions have also been challenged with regard to language, ethnicity, and the like differences of the community in different times. As most of the study informants pointed out, communities in the study area associated a given religion with a specific ethnic group. Consequently, they misunderstand Orthodox Christianity with Amhara ethnic group. In support of this, related with violent conflict case three (3), FGD discussants elucidated that some community members said Orthodox is a religion of Amhara ethnic group and hence has to be eliminated from here. They associated religion with ethnicity and vice versa. The communities make social categories to have productive social inferences. Consequently, member of a given ethnic category expect followers of a social group to share deep properties, including, traits, and norms and they further strive to endure the categorizations for a long period.

In support of the idea already raised, an in-depth interviewee from Haramaya District clearly stated the condition as follow.

As it is known, in this community, there is no term of Orthodox. Instead, they call it Amhara.⁷ This creates the association of religion with ethnicity. Further, this leads to another misunderstanding; whenever the issue of Orthodox rises it will be attached to Amahara ethnic group and vice versa (II- 22, 2021).

Furthermore, the study found that the communities also relate Oromo⁸ ethnic group as the only adherents of Islam. In relation with this, in-depth interviewee from Karssa District mentioned:

There are a lot of people who consider Orthodox as the only religion of Amhara ethnic group. Likewise, they perceive Oromo as the only adherents of Islam. You know, whenever they see a cross on your neck/body, they perceive you as Amhara and stereotype non-Muslim followers as the one came here by tire (II- 1, 2021).

From the above excerpt, one can realize that communities in the study area have a wrong understanding towards religion and ethnicity outside theirs. Consequently, they consider Orthodox as the sole religion of the Amharas and Islam as the Oromos. It is also possible to deduce that the perception that all Orthodox are Amhara has an affiliation with the imperial regime as the church has been supporting the imperial regime and the regime was also supporting the church. And, this is detrimental to the community looking back to the history of Chelenko, Anole, and others. Hence, it has a political association with the past and the present that supports power centralization which have provoked the youth that the old is to be restored under the incumbent regime. It is also possible to infer from the above data that the community lacks clear awareness of phenomena. Hence, it has to be noted that not all followers of Orthodox Christianity are Amhara and that of Islam Oromo. Both religions have followers from diverse socio-cultural backgrounds.

Besides, it was uncovered that there is disagreement among the community. Supporting this, focus group discussants stated that most of the time there is discord and disagreement among individuals who belong to different ethnoreligious and this affects religious institutions’ efforts in maintaining peace and harmony. For instance, an individual from the Oromo ethnic group creates trouble on orthodox religion, whereas an Amhara person generates problems on Islam. The discussants further stated members of the communities were based on their own individual agenda and extended later to the institutions. These further imply that communities in the study area were held together by weak common morality, or what Durkheim called weak collective conscience. As Wallace and Wolf (2006) stated, perhaps this is because of the complexities of modern society that solidarity and social bond has declined.

Strengthening the finding of the present study, Abu-Nimer and Orellana’s (2008) study revealed that when there are ethnoreligious divisions and discords among the communities, it would be much difficult for religious institutions to successfully maintain peace and harmony. Therefore, in the study area, one of the reasons religious institutions were unable to maintain peace and harmony fruitfully is ethnoreligious and linguistic categorizations among in the institutions themselves and the community.

3.3. Lack of good relationship and mutual support between religious institutions

The other challenge that affects the religious institutions’ efforts in maintaining peace and harmony is the deficiency of good relationships between them. The relationship between the institutions is very weak though it seems good when viewed from a distance. There is a superficial relationship between them, i.e. they come together on their religious events to appear as if they are and work together. Nevertheless, as the result of the study indicated, the relationship found between them is not only shallow but also problematic; they abuse one another, especially regarding land and other properties occupied by religious institutions. There are also individuals from religious institutions who want to disturb one another on religious celebrations. In line with this, key informant interviewee from Kombolcha District explained the issue in the following way:

If we say religious institutions’ relationships are pretty well, it would be saying something impractical and not true. For instance, when you see its outline (cover), it may seem good but seeing it down deeply is different and problematic. For example, during big religious events, they support each other and celebrate together. That is very good. However, viewing it deeply, some persons want to destroy and create conflict from Christian religion on Muslims’ celebrations and vice versa. Religious preachers were seen while they teach about the wrongness of other religions saying Pente and manafiq (unbeliever). Superficially, seeing what has been done seems good (though it has its own defects when we look at its root and foundation. There are problems regarding the relationship between them, particularly related to grave land. When Christians lack grave land should Muslims keep silent and watch? Whenever there is a problem with Christians, Muslims should not keep silent. In sharing existing problems between them, there is insufficiency (KII- 1, 2021).

From the above data, one can realize that though the relationships between religious institutions look good (viewing it from the outside), they lack genuine sympathy for one another. To this end, among their adherents, some of them created disturbances on religious holidays. The above data also lead us to infer that the institutions have no adequate tradition of supporting one another, particularly in accomplishing their regular services i.e. providing materials and other supports. Furthermore, it is also possible to understand that the institutions are preaching about the inexactness of other religions that create room for the occurrence of rough relationships between them. This implies that the institutions are working less on issues that bring peace and harmony as they themselves do not have smooth relationships that help them to exchange different ideas, mechanisms, and materials to achieve the purpose (maintenance of peace and harmony).

There is also a lack of strong and genuine bond between religious fathers, especially among sheiks and priests. In this regard, an in-depth interviewee from Haramaya District further explained that there is a lack of unity and good approach to one another among religious fathers. “If the higher authorities like that of Sheiks and Priests, among others, come together and establish a bond, there is no way that the followers do not agree with each other”.

The interpretation here is that incoherence between followers of the two religions is because of discordance between religious fathers of Islam and Orthodox, i.e. sheiks and priests. The religious institutions are also being challenged from building harmonious relationships at a normal time, before the occurrence of conflicts. They also lack consistent discussion on current affairs that encounter them at the time of maintenance of peace and concord. Supporting this, FGD discussants of Karssa District mentioned that lack of building good relationships when there is no conflict is a major challenge to them in maintaining peace and harmony. They lack regular meetings and discussions on issues, like current affairs of the country, religious-related issues, and matters related to peace of the district and town.

As the findings of the study show, religious institutions work independently than collaboratively in maintaining peace and harmony. They ruined to focus on the forbearance of one another. In connection to this, an in-depth interviewee from Haramaya District explained: “Religious fathers do not work with one another. They only try when something or conflict happened. They do not work and focus on tolerance among one another.” Furthermore, supplementing this idea, focus group discussants regarding violent conflict case two (2) elaborated that religious institutions failed to build harmonious relationships among them during and prior to the conflict. They also added, if they would have good affection, it would have been easy for followers to have a peaceful relationship, and followers would have obeyed and implemented whatever their leaders ordered and advised them to do.

Similar to violent conflict case two (2), linked with violent conflict case three (3), the study discovers that there was an absence of discussions on communal issues like peace and harmony. Besides, they had a dearth of unity with one another and failed to support each other at the time of instabilities. Strengthening this, an in-depth interviewee elaborated the case as follows:

There are religious leaders from Islam and Orthodox religions. However, they have not discussed on peace and harmony to stop the conflict. We say that any religion preaches unity and love. On the contrary, at that time, they could not practice and implement it. Lack of regular meetings among the religious leaders [of the two religions] is also a challenge. They should have regular meetings to discuss their concerns and problems; how to strengthen their unity, and their failure to protect one another. They should not disrespect one another. Instead, they should have supported one another when one of them faces a problem. However, this is what the two religious institutions are lacking now (II- 22, 2021).

One can plausibly infer from the above result that religious leaders are not acting and living to the level expected of them (as per doctrines and principles of their religion that states brotherhood, love, respect, living with all people in harmony, etc.). It also indicates that religious leaders and fathers do not have a trend of having discussions on problems and their communal affairs to maintain peace and harmony. Hence, the institutions could not manage to maintain peace and harmony efficiently. Above all, the weaknesses of religious institutions are vivid regarding cultivating and shaping members of the society/the adherents with good social behavior and religions’ principles, and that ultimately affects peace and order of the wider community.

In complement with the finding of the study, structural functionalism theory argues that lack of coherence, integration, and collaboration in certain systems/institutions will affect the stability, functionality, and existence of the whole system/entity. Likewise, the absence of good relationship and partnership between religious institutions ultimately leads to instability and failure to engage in the maintenance of peace and harmony. Connected with the current study’s findings, Ogunnubi and Ettang’s (2018) study revealed that religious institutions are victims of disharmony and lack of consensus. Their study also added that there is a rift within religious institutions that push them back to manage conflicts.

3.4. Lack of knowledge, capacity, and spiritual integrity by religious leaders

Religious leaders are appointed to lead the institutions based on the merits and knowledge they have. As an in-depth interviewee from Haramaya District stated, nonetheless, sometimes, some leaders do not have the knowledge and capacity that they are supposed to have as they come to power through informal networks. The interviewee further stated that there are no sufficient educated preachers of the religions in specific religious institutions. Some of them have not attended religious education (Theology) and the remaining ones have not finished the required courses. Consequently, they were deployed to the church through network of ethnicity, friendship, and others, not by their skills and abilities.

Regarding this, the finding of the study indicated that some religious fathers are considered by the society as an educated people, but actually, they do not have the required capacities and knowledge to deal with the different issues to maintain peace and harmony. Supporting this, a key informant interviewee presented:

There are religious leaders who do not have knowledge and ability. You know there are 3 kabiraas.⁹ The first is a talent that leaders have got through their effort and endeavors. The second is a kind of talent that a community offers to a person regardless of his knowledge and acquaintance. This type of person is there in religious institutions. In this case, basically, there is no a real gift with the leaders. Thirdly, some leaders have extraordinary capacity naturally (KII- 3, 2021).

Moreover, religious leaders were not able to understand the ongoing scenarios more efficiently as to effectively maintain peace and concord. In line with this, FGD discussants elaborated that religious leaders do not have the capacity to handle followers who have various differences such as language, culture, and others. The leaders are not embodied with hikmaa.¹⁰ Some religious leaders have a deficiency in delivering teachings, in advising about tolerance and coexistence to the community, and lack confidence. They are also unable to understand the ongoing contexts in which people are in.

The above data denotes that religious leaders do not attend modern education that enables them to have critical thinking ability and understand different scenarios in this very dynamic world and effectively engage in maintaining peace and harmony.

The study also uncovers religious leaders’ qualities in terms of knowledge and skills are not uniform. There are leaders who have sufficient skills and knowledge and there are also those who do not have such abilities. In addition, sometimes, some leaders know about their religion but lack exemplary behaviour for others, particularly for followers of the religions. As focus group discussants and in-depth interviewees from Kombolcha District explained, there are leaders who put into practice what God taught and there are also leaders who do not implement and go in line with the teachings of the religion. Usually, there are no all-rounded (versatile) leaders in religious institutions.

It is known that communication is the most important thing in life, particularly in dealing with social interaction. As an interviewee from Haramaya District stated religious leaders do not have important communication skills that help them to maintain smooth relationships with the community (including followers of the religions). It has also been found that the leaders have a dearth of modern thinking, philosophies, and being multilingual. The institution lacks human resource who can speak different languages. In complementing the above idea, an in-depth interviewee from Karssa District elaborated that there is a gap of knowing modern and religious education. From both sides, Islam and Orthodox, there is a lack of understanding of the on-going socio-cultural and political situations especially related to culture and languages.

Furthermore, the findings of the study indicated that religious leaders do not have sufficient knowledge and skills in dealing with these modern dynamics. They lack experiences and skills on how to deal with heterogeneous communities as contemporary societies have different cultural, religious, and ethnic identities. In relation to this, one of the in-depth interviewees from Haramaya District remarked the following.

Religious leaders may have a dearth of knowledge on how to apply the knowledge and skills they have in this dynamic and modern context. They may get their knowledge from Adigrat,¹¹ in which they got their skills from homogeneous communities. However, they do not have a capacity to deal with heterogeneous communities, the difference in ethnicity, and religion (II- 22, 2021).

The above data indicate that most of the religious leaders are from the same ethnic background, language, and geographical area. This in turn affects religious institutions to play their role to the level expected especially in maintaining peace and harmony.

Supporting the present study, Ogunnubi and Ettang (2018) revealed that a shortage of qualified religious leaders with different knowledge and skills affects religious institutions in maintaining peace and harmony. Additionally, Sisik (2011) stated that if religious leaders could not be equipped with important knowledge, their efforts in sustaining peace would be affected. Moreover, Tenaw (2007) indicated that religious leaders lack the capacity of what? Peace building theory and practices.

Moreover, as most of the study informants stated, religious leaders are keeping their own interest and benefit cooperating another institution that can benefit their advantage. They have an internally sense of jealousy, superiority to one another, and competition. Supporting this, focus group discussants of the study explained that religious leaders work for others having illegal networks from outside religious institutions. Some leaders lack good manners. For illustration, there are leaders who started building for religious institutions’ development and left it unfinished after using the budget allocated for the project for their own personal issues. They are also highly engaged in corruption within the institutions. What the institution is lacking now is the right person in the right position.

Similarly, an in-depth interviewee from Kombolcha District further described:

There was a big cross (made up of silver) in the church since Hailesillassie’s regime. In 2007, the then religious leader of the church took that cross out of the church and put it in front of the compound at 11:00 local time and soon after, the cross disappeared at 12:00 o’clock in the evening. Likely, the cross was disappeared by the then leader of the institution in collaboration with other priests (II- 16, 2021).

As informants of the study indicated, the main problem is the mismatch between what religious leaders say and do. As another in-depth interviewee from Haramaya District mentioned: “It would be difficult if I say something here and not able to repeat going somewhere else. In every stage, they say we are one/united. Religious leaders should implement and put into practice what they say and preach to the mass.”

As the data from focus group discussants revealed, some religious leaders are reluctant in discharging their responsibility properly. There are religious leaders who are not role models for their followers in terms of ethics and conduct. Religious leaders do not respect and keep the promise they have engaged within their daily routines. Religious leaders also avail themselves in inappropriate places and use the budget of the institutions in improper way. In connection to this, an in-depth interviewee from Karssa District elucidated that there are priests who used resources of the church for their personal interests through corruption and other means. “For instance, the previous leader of the church has manipulated and exploited the institution’s properties in many ways. Even, the top managers of the institution know this very well. He took the money that was collected from followers of the religion.” In line with this, an in-depth interviewee from Haramaya District explained that “for instance, they cost a huge amount of church’s budget on unnecessary things, get money (stipend) for which they do not really engage in (getting more than 5 days stipend while they work only for 2 days)”.

The above data uncover that religious institutions do not have a good system/structure that deals with the institutions’ properties management. Similarly, one interviewee from Kombolcha District mentioned the dearth of a good manner of religious leaders and religious fathers as follows:

One day religious leaders were drunk and attacked each other physically. We were sitting in the compound and my wife screamed and said they are harming him. When we went and saw what happened, three religious leaders were beating one leader laying him on the ground in a big hole. They were even out of our control and shouted saying to kill him … . And when I later collected information concerning the issue, the religious leaders were dancing in the bars (II- 16, 2021).

From this excerpt, it is possible to apprehend that religious leaders do not have a culture of coming together and discuss on their matters to solve their issues/differences systematically and rationally than trying to fix them forcefully. From the above data, it is also possible to understand that religious fathers do not have good conduct that matches with the principles of the religion. As a result, they could not be a role model for their followers. The implication here is that this misconduct of religious leaders has its own role in influencing adherents’ social behavior, which has no positive contribution to ensuring peace and concord.

In conclusion, due to religious fathers’ engagements in wrongful acts (outside ethics) like involvement in corruption, getting drunk and entering into conflicts among themselves, using the budget of religious institutions for personal interest, bias in treating their adherents, and disrespecting one another, religious institutions contributed less to maintain peace and harmony.

3.5. Power struggle and lack of trust among religious fathers

The study reveals that in religious institutions there is a power struggle among religious fathers that push them back in maintaining peace and harmony. Supporting this, an in-depth interviewee in Karssa District mentioned that religious fathers get into conflict and quarreling with one another in the institutions for power.

In religious institutions, some fathers spread conflict and disturb the institutions for their own advantage, to assume power in the institutions. There is also corruption by religious fathers to remain in power illegitimately for a long period, beyond their term of office. In relation to this, focus group discussants indicated that there is a lust for power, achieving one’s political interest in the religious institutions. There are people who want to spread conflicts between government bodies and religious institutions for their own interest by acting in between the two sides.

As in-depth interviewees of the study stated, religious men do not have a smooth transfer of power in the structure of the religious institutions. Regarding this, in-depth interviewee from Kombolcha District explained:

Since most of us (including me) are striving to fulfill our personal and earthly interests, there are times when religious fathers get into conflict and struggle for power in the institution. Some of the individuals, particularly related to sibkete-wengel¹² of the church, do not transfer their power when their term of office ends (II- 7, 2021).

From the above excerpt, one can infer that religious fathers are more attracted and strive to fulfill earthly life than spiritual life. Additionally, religious fathers have no smooth power transferring tradition in the religious institutions and thereby discords and agreements happen in the same. To this end, it would be difficult for them to think about, and maintain peace and harmony. Moreover, the study revealed that power struggle among religious fathers was initiated by their own personal motive rather than religious institutions’ failure in maintaining peace and harmony. This finding is consistent with Neo-Marxists’ theory in which they argue that in certain systems powerful individuals may be very exhaustively embedded in the balance between their power and other resistance group.

As the in-depth interviewees mentioned, religious fathers seem to have trust and tolerance when we see them from the outside. But, in reality, they do not have such a smooth relationship. The fathers do not have trust and respect for one another. Supporting this, an in-depth interviewee from Haramaya District reported that: in our district, there are many religious institutions. Among them, sometimes, there is disharmony; viewing others as the ones who work for somebody else i.e government than religion. They do not trust one another (II-2, 2021).

Concerning violent conflict case one (1), focus group discussants stated that religious fathers should have trust and respect for one another. However, there is no trust among them. If the fathers had trusted one another, their respective followers would have followed their footsteps and had a harmonious relationship. They further mentioned that most of the fathers failed to trust each other based on their differences in their backgrounds. Additionally, related to violent conflict case three (3), a key informant stated: the main social factors that challenged religious institutions in the maintenance of peace and harmony at that time were lack of understanding between religious fathers, lack of respect among them, and being filled with emotion.”

In the same way, Ashafa and Wuye (2006) uncovered that dishonesty, and lack of transparency and unity among religious fathers contribute to a slow pace of maintenance of peace and harmony. Mostly, religious fathers disagree on simple cases. As the data from focus group discussants and an in-depth interviewee from Haramaya District stated, religious fathers quarrel on silly things i.e. in Islam, for instance, some religious fathers say it is strictly forbidden to touch women’s hand as it violates udua,¹³ and some others take it as simple and not violating the religion’s principle. They also conspire on one another even up to interfering with personal life for their own personal benefit (to assume a position in the institution).

As can be inferred from the above result, one of the factors that contribute to loss of religious fathers’ trust on one another is the absence of a common understanding of their own religions’ doctrines. The result also reveals that wrongful acts by religious fathers are prevalent in religious institutions; even it is worse than the one which exists outside religious institutions. To this end, religious fathers engage in these kinds of acts to have a position/power in the institutions. In relation to this finding, Neo-Marxist theory stated that individuals strive to occupy power within a system/an institution and discord/wrongful acts manifest in different ways to achieve the same. Therefore, as the fathers are struggling with one another to assume a position in the religious institutions, their focus and performance in maintaining peace and harmony would be minimal. Lack of trust among religious fathers is concerned, this finding does in line with Ogunnubi and Ettang’s (2018) study that found out the presence of entrenched hostility, anger, and lack of trust among religious fathers as hurdles for religious institutions to interact and work together, and thereby failed to manage conflicts successfully.

4. Conclusions

The study demonstrated that religious institutions have been challenged by intricate social factors to maintain peace and harmony in East Hararghe Zone. These include lack of entertaining followers’ differences in their backgrounds, ethnoreligious and linguistic differences between and among the communities and religious fathers, and lack of good relationships with themselves and the government. This shows that various segments of the society and the religious institutions have no adequate sense of interdependence on mutual benefits such as peace and concord. In this regard, the finding of the study is congruent with structural functionalism theory, which argues that due to lack of interrelationship among and between parts of the system, the whole system (society) faces dysfunctionality. Thus, the study concludes that inability of religious institutions to cooperate with one another to the level expected negatively affects their capacity in maintaining peace and harmony. The finding of the study moreover has an association with Neo-Marxist conflict theory that states individuals in a given institution consistently struggle with one another to occupy an important position. In a very similar fashion, religious fathers, as per the finding of the study, eagerly strive to get a central position in the religious institutions like being an administrator of a given parish/mosque, district, and zonal diocese, etc. Overall, it can be concluded that religious institutions were not able to play their role in maintaining peace and harmony to the level expected of them due to various social factors that are internal and external to them.

5. Recommendations

Based on the findings of the study, the researchers suggested the following recommendations:

• Religious institutions should entertain followers’ differences especially related to their ethnic and language backgrounds as to cohesively engage them to have strong attachment with the religions and thereby contribute their level best in peace and harmony.

• Religious fathers should equip themselves with modern education and skill, particularly with communication skills, and employ individuals who speak different languages to accommodate different types of ethnoreligious and linguistic communities.

• Religious fathers are required to be aware of the contemporary socio-cultural and political dynamism.

• The government should treat religious institutions equally and entertain their cases transparently.

• Concerned higher bodies of the religious institutions need to take corrective administrative measures on religious fathers who violate the principles of the religion.

• Organizing a discussion forum for religious institutions is of paramount importance in the maintenance of peace and harmony.

• There should be a clear guideline and criteria on how to employ and fire staff of the religious institutions.

• Youth in the study area should practice relativism, respecting differences to get rid of religiocenterism by coming together and discussing on the concerns openly and transparently. Besides, they need to adopt and practice democratic culture to be able to acknowledge and respect the various and different cultures, religions, and ideas.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) in partnership with African Research Universities’ Alliance (ARUA) [has no number]; UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) in partnership with African Research Universities’ Alliance (ARUA)UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) in partnership with African Research Universities’ Alliance (ARUA) [has no number];

Notes

1. It is an official language of Ethiopia and which Mosques used it less to preach their teachings in the study area.

2. It is a language spoken by majority of Ethiopians (particularly the Oromo) which Orthodox Churches used it less to preach their teachings in the study area.

3. It is government administrative structure found between regional and Woreda/District level

4. It is a societal structure equivalent to family

5. They are religious categorizations based on warra in Islam religious institutions in the study area

6. They are cultural tool used for cutting plants and also for attacking one another in the study area

7. It is the second largest ethnic group in Ethiopia

8. It is the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia

9. It is a process by which a given religious leader is endowed with knowledge and skills.

10. It is a systematic and polite way of approaching and teaching the followers by leaders.

11. It is a town situated in northern part of the country and characterized by homogenous communities; almost all of them are followers of Orthodox Christianity

12. A structure in Orthodox Church that deals with mainly delivering word of God, biblical gospel like arranging general assembly for preaching and etc.

13. It is one of the principles and/or values in Islam which takes place before praying prayer (solat)