Discrimination in inmates classification: Corrolate to disorder within correctional centres in Nigeria

Abstract

Inequality precedes injustice, as seen in the class difference evident in Nigerian Correctional Centres due to the classification of inmates into high profile and ordinary profile. Therefore, this study examines the dual classification of inmates and its effects on order within correctional centres. Karl Marx’s theory of social conflict was adopted in explaining the differences in economic status and power among the inmates. The study adopts a phenomenological research design. Qualitative methods of data collection and analysis were used in this study. The study population was purposely selected to elicit responses to the research questions. 30 participants of different classifications relevant to the study were purposely selected and interviewed. Content analysis forms the basic method of data analysis as responses were quoted verbatim. Findings show that preferential treatment of highprofile inmates made ordinary inmates feel inferior, rebellious, and frustrated which led to riots or protests. Findings also show that highprofile inmates often break rules, instigate inmates against officers and often look down on officers based on their connection. The study concluded that the incarceration of highprofile inmates sends a message to the public that nobody is above the law and promotes conformity. Still, the special treatment of highprofile inmates says otherwise. It is recommended that no preferential treatment should be given to high-profile inmates to reduce protests and agitations by ordinary-profile inmates. The Government should ensure adequate welfare is provided for every inmate to reduce the show of class in the centres.

Keywords:

• high-profile
• inmates
• correctional centres
• ordinary-profile
• correctional officers

1. Introduction

In Nigeria, the practice of confining people in custody for their wrongdoings predates the Nigerian state. Imprisonment as a form of punishment for offenders was not new to many societies in pre-colonial Nigeria. For example, the traditional legal systems in the North established the Gidan Yari (which is often behind the palace of the Emir); the Yorubas had the Ogboni room and the Edos had the Ewedo house (Olorunola et al., 2021 Aderinto, and Atere 2002)

A history of all of the major tribes in Nigeria show that there were institutions where perpetrators of crimes were confined in the pre-colonial era. Part of Nigeria specifically Lagos State had “Faji” as a place where offenders or suspects were confined and such culprits were made to do some community service specifically environmental sanitation. Community service as a punishment is served within the culprit’s community where his or her identity is well known. Such punishment will bring shame to the culprit and therefore engender both specific and general deterrence. These pre-colonial penal institutions were referred to as gaol and warders referred to as gang drivers. Thus, different ethnic groups in Nigeria had specific methods of punishing offenders in their midst (Olorunola et al., 2021 Aderinto, and Atere, 2002).

Modern Correctional Centres came into being with the advent of the colonial government in Lagos in 1861. The Correctional Centres, the police, and the judiciary were established as part of the administration to give room to the dispensation of justice. The Nigerian Correctional Service system was fashioned after the British system. It should be noted that with the extension of the colonial administration and influence into other communities in Nigeria, Correctional Centres establishment were introduced to them. By 1891, Correctional Centres had been constructed in areas that are now known as Edo and Delta States but were administered by police officers. With the amalgamation of Southern and Northern protectorates in 1914, modern Correctional Centres were extended to the Northern part of Nigeria, and to ensure uniformity between the Northern and Southern Nigerian penal system, the Correctional Centres ordinance of 1916 and the Correctional Centres regulation of 1917 were introduced.

In the Lagos area, as well as Ijebu and mid-western Nigeria, three forms of Correctional Centres were established; Convict for those who were jailed for more than two years and a provincial for those who were jailed for less than two years while a division Correctional Centres was established to keep inmates jailed for less than six months. However, in the Northern part of Nigeria, the system was different. Native authority administered penal institutions at a lower level under the supervision of the chief warder.

The following classes of Correctional Centres are the ones constituted by Cap P.29 Laws of the Federation of Nigeria, 2004:

1. Convict Correctional Centres

2. Satellite Correctional Centres

3. Correctional open Camp

4. Correctional Farm Centers

5. Correctional Borstal Institutions

Currently, there are 240 convict Correctional Centres, 85 Satellite Correctional Centres,14 Farm Centres,3 Borstal training Institutions and 1 open camp. (Nigerian Correctional Service Annual Report, 2020)

2. Research problem

Crime is committed by different classes of people within the society, which explains the division of inmates into high profile and ordinary class inmates. The Nigerian Correctional centres are structured to provide custody for highprofile persons such as government officials, politician, and many more, while other inmates with no pronounced affiliation from the ordinary class status (Bonta & Motiuk, 1992).

The development of class and status within the correctional centres ensues the different treatment given to inmates within the centres. Inmates are divided into categories based on socioeconomic status and family background rather than the nature and type of crime committed (Etter, 2006). This implies that instead of punishment to equate offenders, socioeconomic status differentiates them irrespective of crime committed. This in some ways hampers on the effect of punishment in the society. Both the specific deterrence and general deterrence are hindered and thereby instill negative orientation on the essence of punishment to the less influential and people of lower class.

This treatment falls below the sustainable development goal 10 (reduced inequality) which is clearly shown in the treatment of both classes (high class inmates and ordinary class inmates; Ismail et al., 2021). On so many occasion issues of conflict ensue within the correctional centres between the ordinary class inmates and correctional officers, ordinary class and high profile inmates, and also between ordinary class inmates. Where there are different treatments given to inmates within the same correctional centres, the ordinary class inmates tend to resist such treatment that definitely generates crisis within the centres and between both the high and ordinary profile inmates, as well as the correctional officers.

Hence, the need to study the effects of High-Profile Inmates treatments on the Ordinary-class inmates, as well as the challenges Correctional officers face while managing High and ordinary Profile Inmates crisis becomes necessary to ensure inequality is reduced to its barest minimum.

3. The objectives of the study

The main objective of the study is to examine:

1. the effects of the treatments of the High-Profile Inmates on the Ordinary profile inmates; and

2. the Challenges Correctional Officers face while managing dual-profile Inmates.

4. Literature review

To properly situate the study, previous work done in relation to the present study was reviewed. The literature review covers areas such as the treatment of high profile inmates in Nigeria, the management Implication of dual Treatment of Inmates, and also the theoretical ground on which the study was built.

5. The treatment of high-profile inmates in nigeria

The Correctional Centres are not a producer of their inmates; Inmates are passed into them by the Courts. Social discrimination pervades every facet of criminal Justice (Liem & Weggemans, 2018). Correctional Centres being part of the Criminal Justice system are therefore not immune from discrimination among Inmates.

There have been instances where some highly placed persons who have committed very serious crimes which deserve stiff punishments are either made to serve a very short period of jail terms not commensurate with offenses committed or allowed to go free. Sometimes, they are made to pay fines out of the money looted from public funds or forfeit little landed property acquired through ill-gotten wealth. Jombo (2016) opined that when it involves an ordinary man, the full weight of the law will be brought to bear on him. In most cases, stringent bail conditions beyond what the person can afford are imposed. That is why inmates in Nigerian Correctional Centres are mostly people from a poor backgrounds or the less privileged. The rich or privileged ones can always count on their Wealth or Social Capital to beat the law or escape justice.

In Correctional Centres the Rich also get privileged treatment over the Poor. Specifically, Nigerian Correctional Service, 2,119,170, 1970, Nigerian Correctional Service, 2012: 235–236 provides the conditions under which High-profile Inmates are to be treated. Why do Correctional Centres authorities melt out dual treatment to rich and poor inmates when the system should ideally give inmates equal treatment? Perhaps, the answer lies with argument that “the Correctional Service administration ensured control by reaching an agreement with favored inmates and the inmate’s power structure, overlooking rule infractions by inmates elite in exchange for the elite’s support of the status quo”(Ayuk et al., 2013).

The nature of the offense should have been the criterion for determining the status of inmates (Nigerian Correctional Service Lecture Manual, 2012: 191) rather than socioeconomic and political considerations. According to Adelola,1994 cited in Aderinto, Atere, and Okunola (2002:36) Correctional Centres’ rules and regulations seem to favor the High-Profile Inmates in the areas of accommodation, feeding, clothing, health, and recreational facilities and activities among others at the detriment of the larger majority of the Inmates. This could pose serious challenges for the system. For instance, Enugu correctional center Inmates staged a protest in 2009 and several Inmates were wounded. The ring leader of the protest alleged that there was a lot of partiality in the system. The Inmates alleged that some Inmates were getting better treatment than them, so they lured others into staging the protest (Uzodinma2016). Tanimu (2010) aptly opined that Nigerian Correctional Service facilities are not meant for high-profile criminals rather, they are meant for ordinary criminals

6. The management implication of dual treatment of inmates

Arising from the probability of dualism of inmates, as portrayed above, are the challenges for the management of the inmates generally in the affected Correctional Centres and, by extension, all the Correctional Centres in Nigeria. These management challenges arise from variations in social class, status class, and party affiliations of the inmates which may have negative implications on their accommodation suitability, wearing of inmate’s uniform, quantity, and quality of inmates’ ration, water, sanitation, drugs, and recreational facilities, among others. High-Profile Inmates are given minimum comfort and priority over Ordinary-Profile Inmates due to the ability of the former to pay for such comfort (Turney, K., Hedwig. lee and Megan Comfort (2012), Aminu Musa Ahmed, Abd Halim B. Ahmad, 2015, Aborisade, 2019)

7. Theoretical framework

This research was based on Karl Marx’s theory of Social Conflict. Karl Marx(1818–1883) viewed society at a macro level and therefore saw society as made up of individuals in different social classes who compete for limited, resources, Status, and power which are unevenly distributed between groups in society thereby giving rise to conflict which ultimately leads to social change (Nweke & Ajah, 2017; Renaud, 2006; Turney, Lee & Comfort, 2013)

Since the Correctional centers are a microcosm of the larger society, this study applied Karl Marx’s theory of conflict at a micro level. Marx saw conflict in society as the principal means of change. According to Marx, economic relation is the substructure on which other relations (superstructures), politics, legal, religion, military, etc depend. Economically, he perceived conflict existing between owners of means of production—the Bourgeoisie and the labourers’—the proletariats (Siegel, 2007, Ritzer, 2008)

In Correctional Centres, High-Profile Inmates may not engage in production. Still, they have the means of production and they may constantly alienate the Low-Profile Inmates who are the proletariats. Arguably, some High-Profile Inmates had engaged in production outside the Correctional Centres before their incarcerations and may continue to engage in production by proxy while being incarcerated. Conclusively, they tend to oppress ordinary-class inmates and even correctional officers, brewing many conflicts.

8. Methodology

This study adopted a phenomenological research design. This was selected due to the qualitative nature of the study, which tends to examine everyday experience of human. Lagos State as the study area was purposively selected for this study because the state is one of the few states that houses all categories of security correctional centres and inmates, also Correctional Centres in the Kirikiri axis and Ikoyi axis are especially noted for keeping High-Profile Inmates. Although Lagos Correctional Centres are known for keeping all classes of inmates, Maximum Security Correctional Centre, Kirikiri; Women Security Correctional Centre, Kirikiri and Ikoyi Correctional Centre, Ikoyi are known for keeping High-Profile Inmates. Therefore, the three centres aforementioned (Maximum Security Correctional Centre, Kirikiri; Women Security Correctional Centre, Kirikiri and Ikoyi Correctional Centre, Ikoyi) were purposively selected. The researchers adopted a qualitative method of data collection and analysis. This becomes necessary as not all inmates are educated and would be able to express him or herself. Hence, the selection of qualitative method of data collection was to give every respondent the opportunity to express him or herself in any preferred way. The qualitative data were collected through in-depth interviews and analysed using content analysis.

A total of 21 inmates and 9 high-ranked correctional officers were purposively selected. Respondents from the inmates were selected among inmates who held leadership positions and were officially recognized by the Correctional Centres authority in the three Correctional Centres concerned. The pilot study revealed that the following seven posts existed among the High-Profile Inmates and the ordinary-class inmates in the three Correctional Centres concerned: (1)“Chairman” (2)“General Provost” (3)“Chief Judge” (4)“Inspector General of Police” (5)“Commissioner of Police” (6)” Prosecutor” (7) “Police”. Thus, 7 respondents were purposively selected in each of the three Correctional Centres (7 each amongst ordinary-class inmates) making a total of 30 respondents.

9. Findings

The study in its bid to examine the effect of the treatment of the high profile inmates on the ordinary class inmates, several responses was gotten from the interviews conducted. The dominant responses gotten includes: refusal of instructions given by the correctional officers in protest to the different treatment lashed out against the ordinary class inmates. This is corroborated thus:

The level of inequality within this wall is enough to kill anyone. Some inmates here are given preferential treatment basically because of their class where as we all are inmates and should be treated as equal “We all na criminals” (we are all criminals). So in such situation I refuse to follow such instruction and I even encourage people to disobey any instruction that shows inequality. IDI, Prison inmate, 2022.

The implication to this basically is that most of the ordinary class inmates who happens to see the difference in treatment given to high profile inmates when compared with that of ordinary class inmates tend to disobey constituted authority and which subsequently leads to disorder within the correctional centres. This finding supports Ogadimma, Adejumo, and Asamu, (2015) that there is the tendency that some of the ordinary-class inmates would want to register their ill feelings regarding the system that alienates them a lot in many ways by being rude to the constituted authority. Such treatment could lead to protest by the ordinary-class inmates. When people are not satisfied with their treatment generally in any system, they most likely register their grievances through protest.

The study further found out that difference in treatment of high-profile inmates to that of ordinary class inmates makes the ordinary-class inmates feel inferior to the High-Profile Inmates. Inferiority complex is a possibility here due to the discriminatory treatments that are given out to both classes of inmates; it is likely that the ordinary-class inmates would always think that they are less human in comparison with the High-Profile Inmates who are so specially treated in every facet of the system. This is corroborated thus:

I see the division into classes even in the correctional centres shows the superiority and inferiority within the wall. When I see the privileges accorded to the high profile inmates, except if I want to console myself because it shows clearly that we ordinary class inmates are inferior within the walls of the centres as well as to those who created such discrimination. IDI, Prison inmate, 2022.

Some ordinary-class inmates opined that discriminatory treatment given to high-profile inmates makes the ordinary-class inmates grumble. There is no doubt that people will grumble in a system that denies them so many privileges and benefits and offers their counterparts such privileges and benefits they were denied. The ordinary-class inmates feel cheated when they observe the treatments accorded to the High-Profile Inmates. Most likely, people will feel cheated in any system that operates dual treatment or discriminatory treatment in which one is disadvantaged. They would also feel marginalized, alienated, and aggressive. This supports the argument of Stemen (2017). This is corroborated thus:

It is just normal that when ordinary class inmates see the kind of treatment given to high profile inmates, he or she will be tempted to grumble but because we have no choice we are left to look for every opportunity to make our frustration know. But most of the ordinary class inmates grumble regularly and that account for why most of such ordinary class inmates are made to pay fine or serve punishment. (IDI, Prison inmate, 2022.)

Other responses received show that ordinary inmates feel frustrated as a result of not being treated in the same way. Frustration could come when they feel their efforts are not being recognized. This is because it has been discovered that High-Profile Inmates do not engage in Correctional Centres labour, unlike ordinary-class inmates, and, at the end of the day, more benefits and privileges go to the high-profile. This supported the claim of Ajah and Nweke (2017) as it is not unlikely that the ordinary-class inmates would feel frustrated in the system. This is corroborated thus:

The way those high profile inmates are treated always frustrate me to laziness, naturally I am not the lazy type but when I see what those high profile inmates enjoy while they give nothing compared to what we the ordinary class inmates who give all to show our loyalty and responsibility (IDI, Prison inmate, 2022.)

The special treatments accorded only to the High-Profile Inmates provoked the ordinary inmates to anger. This is because, wherever one observes privileges being enjoyed in a system and one is denied such privileges, one’s anger could be provoked. Adekunle, George & Godson Olu-Kehinde, (2015) argue that the condition of the ordinary-class inmates breed bitterness and anger. Majority of the ordinary class inmates feel deprived. Deprivation comes in because they see a lot of benefits and privileges accorded to the High-Profile Inmates in the system which they are denied access to. They watch daily that, in all activities in the system, there is no justice for the poor. This corroborates Ajah and Nweke (2017) claim that the wheels of justice turn only for those with wealth and power. This is corroborated thus:

Every single day when I see the way those high profile inmates are treated I wonder if we ordinary profile inmates have committed a different offence. The special treatments accorded to them provoke me to anger and that significantly explains why I intentionally disobey the warders. I so much hate those guys. I see all of us inmates as equal so far we have committed the same offence or is it a crime that we are not as rich as they are? (IDI, Prison inmate, 2022.)

Above all, the cumulating effect of the feelings harvested points directly towards the tendency for ordinary class inmates to riot. Disparity in treatment could cause the ordinary-class inmates to riot. This is possible in any society or system that does not ensure justice to all. In a situation where people feel bad, frustrated, marginalized or alienated, riot could be the result. All the ingredients showing that the ordinary-class inmates do not feel good about the system are all ingredients that could build up riot. Despite the responses received through the interview which established that inmates were treated well in the correctional centres, the disparity in the treatment could whip up ill feelings toward the high profile inmates.

Even though some of the ordinary-class inmates were not satisfied with the discrimination within the correctional centres, some had no choice than to move close to the high profile inmates for the gains there in. This is corroborated thus:

My relationship is cordial with the high profile inmates. Some of we ordinary-class inmates protect the interest of the High-Profile Inmates for the gains we enjoy from the High-Profile Inmates because the High-Profile Inmates sometimes pay fines and secure bails for some of we ordinary-class inmates. Ordinary inmates (some) act as houseboy or house help to High-Profile Inmates despite our displeasure to the special treatment given to the High Profile Inmates. (IDI, Male, 58 years, 2022).

9.1. The challenges correctional officers face while managing dual profile inmates

Correctional officers face a number of challenges managing the dual profile of inmates within the correctional centres. Has it had been established on the classes of inmates incarcerated as well as the privileges allotted to the different classes, no doubt different challenges will ensue. Challenges arise from the two classes of inmates which compound the challenges on the part of the correctional officers as to managing the challenges to ensure order within the four walls of the correctional centres.

Most importantly is the challenge of high-profile inmates disobeying laid down rules and regulations guiding their conduct in Correctional Centres. Rules and regulations are prescribed to all classes of inmates on how to conduct themselves within the centres, but unfortunately, majority of the High profile inmates abuse the status and privileges accorded then by disobeying some rules within the proper conduct of inmates in correctional centres. This supports the study of Olorunola et al. (2021). This is corroborated thus:

High profile inmate’s presence in the yard is a major concern as the way they are treated and how they conduct themselves create tension within the yard. As a yard master, even when labour is to be done and the high profile inmates are included they refuse to participate and when they are forced to engage in it they induce ordinary class inmates with financial gain to undertake the task on their behalf. It require serious discretion in handling matters like that because if you allow the high profile inmates to be left out it might cause an uprising from the ordinary class inmates and if you insist on the high profile inmates engaging in the task personally, you end up being reported to higher authorities within correctional service.(IDI, Yard Master, 2022)

Due to the relationship of the high profile inmates to the officer in-charge, means of production and specifically connection within the country, they tend to look down on officers. They expect officers and other inmates to accord them the same respect they had before incarceration. With their political influence, the high profile inmates are open to or had, they go as far as arranging for the transfer of staff that are not their stooge, puppet or pawn out of the correctional centre to another location. This is corroborated thus:

The high profile inmates create problem in the yard and especially with the difference in treatment given to high profile inmates when compared with that of Ordinary profile inmates. When high profile inmates are assigned to take a task, they are eager to tell the staff who they are and how they can pay the salary of the staff for life while still in the yard. Such act is to intimidate the officer and allow them to have their way. But in such cases the officers politely ensure the right thing is done. (IDI, Correctional Officer, 2022)

Sequel to the privilege(s) the high profile inmates enjoy, they sometimes instigate ordinary-class inmates to cause riot or unrest within the correctional centres in exchange for financial reward. This supported the claim of Azemi (2020) on the impact of the environment on behavior. This act tends to cause disorder within the correctional centres. This is corroborated thus:

I think the classification of inmates has generated lot of feud within the yard. As a yard supervisor, it is my responsibility to ensure order within the yard. Unfortunately, since we cannot handle all the inmates the same way, different treatment is issued based on so many criteria in differentiating inmates. We have the high profile and the ordinary class inmates. High profile inmates in most cases are the originator or disputes within the yard. They financially motivate crisis within the yard and due to the situation within the yard, ordinary class inmate buy into the high profile bait to foment trouble. In some cases, some ordinary class inmates are loyal to some of the high profile inmates and based on the loyalty, high profile inmates gives counter instruction to ordinary class inmates to frustrate the officer. Such counter instruction in some cases causes chaos between the officers and the inmates which if not properly managed could cause serious disorder. (IDI, Correctional Officer, 2022)

In combating the challenges which ensue from the dual classification of inmates within the correctional centres, the study gathered that correctional officers employ various measures to ensure and sustain order within the centres. Such measures include:

• The officers often adopt the use of diplomacy in dealing with both the ordinary and high profile inmates as in line with the standing order of the Nigerian correctional services;

• Officers often stand their grounds to enforce stipulated rules enacted for the daily dealings, runnings, and operations of the correctional centres while dealing with the inmates to restore order in case of any impending breakdown of law and order;

• Discipline is usually enforced in correcting or bringing to order an unruly inmates both high profile and ordinary class inmates. This could be through deprivation of special privileges.

10. Theoretical discussion of findings

For many years, Correctional Centres institutions have undergone serious challenges with regard to classification of its inmates. Overcrowding as well as the need for re-socialization among others has made classification to be a sine qua non as far as penal institution is concerned. The above resulted into scholars using classification as a major instrument for distributing facilities in the Correctional Centres equitably and reducing the risk for revolt, vices, and such other negative influences from incompatible inmates of different socio-demographic characteristics. Classification in addition to the above is anticipated to give room to higher responsibility and to aid prediction of future institutional bed-space, personnel needs, as well as inmate programme requirements(Etter, 2006).

Classification of inmates is separation of all inmates in a particular Correctional Centres into different categories. By so doing, the awaiting-trial persons are separated from the convicted persons, male from female, young from adult, the insane or psychologically unstable from the normal persons, the convicted from the condemned, armed robbers from petty thieves, and then broadly speaking, the ordinary-class inmates from the High-Profile Inmates.

This research relied on Karl Marx theory of class conflict in Oyinlade et al. (2020), which looks at class as emanating from the interplay of Economic relation as the substructure of other relations such as Politics, Social, Religion among others which are the superstructures. This theory states that an individual’s influence could be demonstrated economically. This corroborates Weber’s view that an individual’s influence could be demonstrated through his Social Status, class, and politically by means of an individual’s affiliation. Crothers (2012) formulated three components of social structure, with class status and party as distinct element. These three components of social structure influence the life chances of an individual in the Correctional Centres. Thus, a high-profile person in the society retains his high-profile status even in the Correctional Centres and the same thing goes for the ordinary-class person in the society who retains his ordinary-class status in the Correctional Centres.

Consequently, this study complied largely with Max's theory of social conflict based on economic determinism. It also confirms that the status of Correctional Centres inmates has consequence on individual’s life chances (Weber 2010), which are opportunities for the inmates to survive in the Correctional Centres. That is, the treatment accorded each inmate is a consequence of his economic and consequently, Social Status. Stemen (2017)avers that a rich person does not lose his social status nor his economic advantages in Correctional Centres, and inequality between the rich and the poor persists in the Correctional Centres.

The study revealed that the following types of treatment are given to High-Profile Inmates in Correctional Centres: self-feeding, opening-out for longer hours, access to electrical/electronic gadgets (television, fan, and fridge, and so on), non-wearing of Correctional Centres uniform, special (non-congested) accommodation, special visits, unhindered access to the officer in charge of the Correctional Centres, freedom from Correctional Centres labor and access to newspapers/magazines. The above are a reflection of the life chances of the High-Profile Inmates in Correctional Centres. Which means all the privileges listed above were made possible by the social status of the High-Profile Inmates, among other factors.

The following treatments are given to ordinary-class inmates in Correctional Centres: opening-out for lesser hours, engagement in Correctional Centres labor, accommodated in congested cells, main dependence on Correctional Centres food, mandatory appearance in Correctional Centres uniform and locking up into cells at normal time. Their own treatment too emanate from their own life chances because life chances could either create advantages or disadvantages for individuals, depending on whether the social status of individual is high or low. It should be recalled that this status could be from an achieved or ascribed status.

Furthermore, the study revealed certain indelible effects flowing from the treatment of High-Profile Inmates on ordinary-class inmates: These, among others include feelings of dejection, frustration, being cheated, and an overall effect of general depravity. The immediate consequence of this could be difficulties in Correctional Centres administration and high propensity for Correctional Centres riot and general disorder.

The data further brought to the fore the unique challenges attached to the classification of High-Profile Inmates. This similarly poses challenges for effective Correctional Centres administration. Perhaps, the foremost challenge is that there is a dearth of special skilled personnel to handle High-Profile Inmates. Staff are easily cowed by the social status of these inmates, experience feelings of inferiority complex and are unable to exert control easily, this category of inmates being rude most of the time. They also pose the security risk of threat of escape, insatiable demands, and incessant health complaints.

Dual treatment poses challenges of threat to security of the system and staff. It also engenders a feeling of deprivation and alienation among the ordinary-class inmates. The major findings of this research agree with Max Weber’s theory of life chances as explained above.

Despite the various effects of the discriminatory treatment of high profile inmates over the ordinary profile inmates, few of the ordinary class inmates enjoy some advantages derived from the presence of High-Profile Inmates in Correctional Centres. Some respondents opined that the presence of High-Profile Inmates in Correctional Centres is always a thing of joy for the ordinary-class inmates because of the benefits there in. For instance, a lot of ordinary-class inmates readily make themselves available as house helps to the High-Profile Inmates because of the advantages they would get from the High-Profile Inmates. Such advantages are that the High-Profile Inmates sometimes pay fines for the ordinary-class inmates. They arrange for legal representatives for the ordinary-class inmates. The High-Profile Inmates, sometimes, feed the ordinary-class inmates, clothe them and more.

11. Recommendation

The co-existence of the two classes of inmates within the correctional centres coupled with the treatment experienced by the two classes of inmates often breed hatred and therefore engenders internal conflict within the correctional centres. Towards addressing the issues of concern which is the reason(s) for the conflict arising through discriminatory treatment of a category of inmates from other inmates, immediate intervention is therefore required.

The major point of remedy is ensuring enticing welfare package for inmates. Welfare could be in different ways but the major point of emphasis are:

• Feeding: Where all category of inmates get proper feeding arrangement with required nutrient and adequate quantity, there won’t be any need for a class of inmates to be aggrieved over the difference in meals served in the correctional centres; and

• Decongestion of Correctional centres: Ordinary class inmates get enraged with the preference given to high profile inmates in terms of less congested cells occupied by high profile inmates compared with the over congested cells housing the ordinary class inmates. An average correctional centre in Nigeria is over populated and this goes to the celerity of punishment for deterrence as well as other health-related challenges (Olorunola et al., 2021). Where cells are over populated, rehabilitation process tends to be ineffective.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

The authors received no direct funding for this research.