The moderating effect of leadership style on the relationship between job description and employee performance in the Omani public sector

Abstract

The performance of employees is important for all organizational stakeholders. Prior research concentrated on how well workers performed in private-sector businesses in developed nations, with the public sector in emerging nations receiving little attention. This study’s goal is to investigate how job description (JD) influences employee performance (EP) in Omani public sector, and it is to examine the moderating role of leadership style in the relationship between JD and EP. Organizations in Oman’s governmental sphere make up the study’s population. However, five designated ministries are chosen to represent the public sector. Stratified random sampling is used to gather the data using a questionnaire. A total of 420 responses were collected. Data were analyzed using analysis of a moment structures (AMOS). The findings demonstrated that JD has a significant positive impact on EP. In addition, transactional leadership but not transformational leadership moderated positively the effect of JD on EP of the Omani public sector. Decision makers are advised to simplify and accurately design the job of employees and to link pay with performance.

Keywords:

• employee performance
• job description
• transformational leadership
• transactional leadership

1. Introduction

Oman is one of the Arab nations with employee performance (EP) issues in the public sector. A study comparing the performance of public sector employees in developed nations (such as the United States and Canada) and regional countries (such as Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates) revealed that the EP of the public sector in Oman is less than that of developed nations and regional countries (Albalushi et al., 2019). The performance of employees is crucial for both organizations and individuals. The significance of this performance stems from the role that these employees play in boosting an organization’s productivity (Baig et al., 2021). Thus, employees are the most essential resource for every organization, and their productivity has a significant impact on the performance of the organization (Khassawneh et al., 2023). EP is defined as the quality and quantity of work results to be attained by an employee in carrying out their responsibilities and duties (Siswanti & Astuti, 2020).

The employee performance was examined less in public sector compared to private sector. In the public sector, EP is crucial because employees provide essential services to the public, such as educational services in public educational institutions, healthcare services in public hospitals, and other transactions in public organizations (Somani, 2021). Therefore, the performance of employees in the public sector contributes to the sector and to the provision of essential public services to the country’s citizens and other stakeholders (Hayati & Aviana, 2023). Consequently, the public sector is an essential component of the nation’s economy and plays a crucial role in generating employment and providing high-quality public services (Qing & JinHua, 2023). Contrary to this belief, the majority of prior research has focused on the performance of employees in the private sector, whereas only a few have examined this performance in the public sector (Tran & Pham, 2018). In a production-driven economy, organizations encourage employees to improve their performance. As a result, employees are working longer hours while feeling more anxious and less fulfilled in their work, which reduces their productivity, and increases the rate of absenteeism and the desire to quit their jobs (Ravina-Ripoll et al., 2019).

A poor job description (JD) makes performance evaluation difficult and causes employee dissatisfaction (Raju & Banerjee, 2017). The absence of a JD results in duplication of duties and an increase in employee conflict, which ultimately leads to poor performance (Alnaim & Almujtaba, 2018). Therefore, organizations must have a distinct, accurate, and detailed JD that enables employees to comprehend their duties and responsibilities and evaluate their performance in relation to their predetermined roles and assignments (Fadhil, 2019). In accordance with these assertions, job characteristic theory posits that having defined job tasks and responsibilities results in motivation, satisfaction, and enhanced performance (Smith & DeNunzio, 2020). On the other hand, prior research also revealed that JD has no impact on EP, resulting in contradictory findings regarding the effect of the JD on EP (Sudrajat, 2021).

The public sector is characterized by inflexibility and rigidity (Hensel, 2019). Due to the belief that employees in the public sector are less motivated and engaged than those in the private sector, EP in this sector is poor and lower than in the private sector (Islam & Amin, 2019). Leadership styles within organizations contribute to EP, particularly in the context of developing countries (Ohemeng et al., 2018). Recent leadership theories, such as transformational and transactional, propose that the leader can play a crucial role in motivating employees by focusing on their development and well-being i.e., transformational leadership (TFL) or by tying their compensation to their performance i.e., Transactional leadership (TSL) (Buil et al., 2019). The majority of the previous studies examined the direct effect of TFL and TSL on EP (Buil et al., 2019; Ferozi & Chang, 2021; Jnaneswar & Ranjit, 2020; Manzoor et al., 2019), while few examined the moderating role of leadership style (TFL and TSL) in the context of the public sector (Cobbinah et al., 2020; Ugheoke, 2020).

In contrast, the Oman 2040 vision seeks to develop the competencies and performance of public sector employees (Albalushi et al., 2019). Therefore, it has been suggested that research be conducted into the relationship between JD and EP in countries such as Oman (Al-Fathi & Al-Hidabi, 2020). This study seeks to investigate the relationship between JD and EP in Oman. In addition, this study intends to investigate the moderating role of TSL and TFL between JD and EP. The following sections elaborate on the literature, methodology, findings, discussion, and conclusion.

2. Literature review

This section reviews the literature related to the theories such as the job characteristic theory and leadership theory. The research framework is discussed along with the hypothesis development.

2.1. Theoretical framework

Job characteristics theory (ICT) was initiated by Hair et al. (2010). Based on the theory, properly inspired employees perform well (Nduta, 2017). The theory states that five key job characteristics—skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback—impact three crucial psychological states: experienced meaningfulness, experienced responsibility for outcomes, and knowledge of the actual results (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). Hackman and Oldham (1976) also proposed using the JD to identify areas of an institution’s job design that need development. In this study, the JD is part of the JCT. This theory is expected to explain the effect of JD on EP. This study also includes the transformational and transactional theory proposed by Burns (1978) who described transforming leadership as creating a fundamental change in the life of employees and the organization. Based on this concept of transforming, the values and perceptions of employees are redesigned, leading to changes in employees’ expectations and aspirations.

Bass (1985) extended the work of Burns (1978) and focused his effort on explaining in what way TFL and TSL can be measured and the mechanism in which it can affect the followers’ performance and motivation toward their jobs and their organizations (Villanueva et al., 2020; Waruwu et al., 2020). Manzoor et al. (2019) used leadership theories to explain the effect of TFL on EP in SMEs in Pakistan. The theory of TFL was used to explain the moderating effect of TFL between organizational culture and EP (Ugheoke, 2020). Similarly, the theory of TSL was used in prior literature to explain the effect of TSL on individual outcomes (Arumugam et al., 2019). In this study, the moderating role of TFL and TSL is expected to be explained by TFL and TSL theories respectively.

2.2. Conceptual framework and hypotheses development

Based on the JCT, TFL and TSL theories this study proposed that the effect of JD on EP is positive among employees of the public sector in Oman. This proposition is based on the notion that previous studies have focused mainly on manufacturing (Khtatbeh et al., 2020), hotels or tourism (Alzoubi & Jaaffar, 2021), the banking sector (Mekpor & Dartey-Baah, 2020), SMEs and business organization (Manzoor et al., 2019). Previously reviewed studies that focus on the public sector, in general, are limited and in particular in the Middle East and Oman in the context of the JD and EP is rare (Albalush et al., 2019). This study also proposed that the TFL and TSL moderate the effect of JD on EP. Most previous studies focused on the direct effect of TFL and TSL in the context of the private sector (Saadouli & Al-Khanbashi, 2020). This proposition is based on the notion that the moderating role of TFL and TSL was examined by a limited number of studies in general and in the context of the public sector in particular (Munawar et al., 2021). Figure 1 shows the conceptual framework of this study.

Figure 1. Conceptual framework.

Source: self-developed

2.2.1. Job description and employee performance

The utilization of skilfully crafted JD can aid managers in enhancing work performance and fostering job satisfaction (Khtatbeh et al., 2020; Ramhit, 2019). As per the findings of several scholars, JD encompass a diverse range of details such as job designations, organizational and departmental identification, mandatory and suggested qualifications and job responsibilities. Furthermore, the JD delineates the requisite qualifications and the requisite physical conditioning for the position. JD is a crucial component for organizations (Sembiring & Normi, 2021; Setyoko, 2020).

Previous studies examined the link between JD and EP. However, it appears that there is a dearth of agreement regarding the impact of a JD on EP. Raju and Banerjee (2017) found that JD has a detrimental influence on the productivity of industrial employees. However, it has a favourable impact on the contentment and productivity of employees (Ramhit, 2019). Nduta (2017) found that the JD of an employee in the public sector can have a notable influence on their productivity, potentially resulting in increased efficiency. In the context of a public organization, employees who lack clear direction may experience confusion, frustration, and demoralization. Hence, the potential impact of JD on EP can manifest in various ways. The documented and explicit delineation of job responsibilities can serve as a guiding tool for both managers and subordinates within public organizations, aiding them in their day-to-day operations (Cohen et al., 2020; Jabbarani Torghabeh et al., 2020). Prior literature indicated that the effect of JD on EP is mixed. There is a direct, positive and significant effect of JD on the performance of employees (Cen, 2022; Ehugbo et al., 2022). According to the previous studies, there are few studies that findings showed that JD does not affect employee performance, which lead to mixed findings in term of the effect of JD on employee performance (Musyoka et al., 2016; Sudrajat, 2021). In this study, JD is measured as specific. This study puts forth the following proposal:

H1:

JD has a significant positive effect on the performance of employees in the public sector in Oman.

2.2.2. Moderating effect of transformational leadership

The concept of TFL was initially presented by James Downton in 1973, as stated by Fernández and Quintero (2017). The theory of leadership gained significant prominence following its introduction by the historian and politician, Burns, in Burns (1978). Burns (1978) provided a comprehensive analysis of TFL in his publication titled “Leadership.” This work involved a critical evaluation of conventional leadership practices and policies, with a view to enhancing long-term leadership outcomes (Burns, 1978). Burns’ theoretical framework of TFL centers on the leadership style necessary to effect organizational change and enhance productivity through the implementation of contemporary organizational practices that align with the post-modern era (Andrews, 2018).

Leadership is critical for performance (Khassawneh et al., 2022; Maqbool et al., 2023). The direct effect of TFL was examined in several studies (Fan et al., 2023; Khassawneh & Elrehail, 2022; Sarwar et al., 2023). However, when it comes to the moderating effect of this variable, there are limited studies especially in the context of public sector. Lee and Wei (2017) examined the moderating effects of TFL and found that it moderated the effect of interactional justice and affective commitment. Ugheoke (2019) found that TFL moderated positively the effect of organizational culture on employee performance in Oman. In China, Sungu et al. (2019) found that TFL moderated positively the impact of organizational commitment on job performance. Cobbinah et al. (2020) also found that TFL moderated the effect of organizational commitment on employee performance. Haryanto et al. (2022) found that did not moderate the effect of workplace conflict and employee performance. Based on the above discussion, this study proposes a positive moderating role of TFL between JD and employee performance in Omani public sector. Leaders who are aware of the JD and can direct employees to adhere to their duties and responsibility which leads to an improvement in employee performance.

H2:

TFL moderates positively the effect of the JD on the performance of employees in the public sector in Oman.

2.2.3. Moderating effect of transactional leadership

The transactional leader employs a leader-follower interaction. Employees are rewarded for their exceptional performance, while leaders profit from greater organizational performance and employee task completion. TSL considers employee performance will improve based on the reward provided (Bass, 2019). The transactional leader defines staff duties and rewards. Transactional leaders think their followers are logical, and motivated by rewards and incentives. Followers are predictable. Transactional leaders are efficient, focused on the present, and can improve the organization as a whole. TSL is a contingency reward, management by exception, and passive/active leadership (Bass, 2019).

Prior studies investigated the direct effect of TSL on employee performance (Amalina & Susilowati, 2022; Jamali et al., 2020). Moderating effect of TSL has been examined in a few studies (Arumugam et al., 2019; Cobbinah et al., 2020, Haryanto et al., 2022; Lee & Wei, 2017; Sungu et al., 2019; Ugheoke, 2020). For instance, a study by Lee and Wei (2017), Arumugam et al. (2019) and Cobbinah et al. (2020) that TSL acted as a moderating variable. Lee and Wei (2017) found that TSL moderated positively the influence of interactional justice on affective commitment. Cobbinah et al. (2020) found that the effect of organizational commitment on employee performance was moderated positively by TSL. Munawar et al. (2021) found that TSL moderated positively the effect of corporate social responsibility on organizational performance. In Oman, leaders who links the rewards and pay to the adherence of rules, duties, and responsibility can lead employees to follow their JD and results in a positive increase in employee performance. Therefore, this paper proposed that TSL moderates the effect of JD on employee performance.

H3:

TSL moderates positively the effect of the JD on the performance of employees in the public sector in Oman.

3. Research methodology

This study has employed a positivist approach, which emphasizes the use of quantitative data collection and analysis before making generalizations. This study is deploying the deductive approach because the study is shifting from the general to the specific. The study is a hypothesis testing. The study adopts a cross-sectional design approach rather than a longitudinal design.

In Oman, the public sector includes all ministries and government agencies. According to recent statistics, the workforce in Oman is 2.15 million, out of which 751,800 are Omani nationals. In the public sector, the number of employees is 349,200 who are working for the governmental sector. However, this number includes all ministries and military jobs. In all ministries, there are 136,504 employees (National Centre for Statistics and information, 2021).

The population of this study is the employees who are working in public sector organizations in Oman. The study focuses on five ministries: health, housing, education, labour, commerce, and industry. The target population in this research is the 106,102 employees working in the five ministries in Oman. This constitutes a percentage of 77.7% of the total national civil servant employees in the country. Each ministry has a different number of employees. Using the stratified sampling techniques, each ministry is represented by a sufficient number based on its population. Based on the Sloven model, the sample size is 399. However, to account for the low response rate, the sample size was doubled to 798. This is also based on the suggestions of Hassan and Ghazali (2021).

3.1. Measurement

The data was collected using a questionnaire. The questionnaire is adopted from prior literature. Measurement of JD: the measurement of JD consists of 20 items and was adopted from several researchers e.g. (Mauliadiani et al., 2019; Nduta, 2017; Pattisahusiwa, 2013; Raju & Banerjee, 2017; Yeboah, 2019).,

Measurement of EP: the measurement of EP consists of 20 items and was adopted from several researchers i.e. (Arinanye, 2015; Suleiman et al., 2021; Tabouli et al., 2016).,

Measurement of TFL: the measurement of TFL consists of 10 items and was adopted from Al Busaidi (2020) and Tajasom and Ariffin (2013).

Measurement of TSL: the measurement TSL consists of seven items and was adopted from Al Busaidi (2020) and Tajasom and Ariffin (2013).

All the variables were measured using five points Likert ranged from 1= “strongly disagree” to 5= “strongly agree”. Measurements of the variables are given in Appendix.

3.2. Validation and data collection

The measurement of the variables was translated using back-to-back translation. A validation using the input from seven experts was conducted to assess the wording and clarity of the questionnaire. The validation was conducted on both Arabic and English versions of the questionnaire. A pilot study was conducted on 50 employees. Based on the results of validation and reliability analysis, the number of items for JD was reduced to 17 items and 19 items for EP as well as 10 items for TFL and 7 items for TSL. All the measurements showed reliability higher than 0.70 as suggested by researchers e.g. (Hair et al., 2017). A total of 798 were distributed, and only 432 questionnaires were answered by the respondents. Hence, the overall return rate was 54.1%. Therefore, we proceeded with 432 of the responses.

4. Findings

4.1. Data examination

The data of this study were examined for missing values and outliers. There was no missing value due to the use of “required function” in the online questionnaire. In other words, employees of the public section in Oman were obliged to complete all questions and submit their responses. A total of 12 responses were identified as outliers, and they were removed. This has made the valid responses account for 420. The data were checked for normality using skewness and kurtosis. Pallant (2013) suggested that a value lower than absolute 2 for both indicators is a sign that the data are normally distributed. In Table 1, it can be seen that the skewness and kurtosis of the variables are less than 2. Pallant (2013) also suggested that a value of tolerance greater than 0.10 and variation inflation factors (VIF) less than 10 are indicators that there are no multicollinearity issues among the variables. Table 1 shows that the values of tolerance and VIF are within the accepted range. In addition, the common method bias was assessed. Kock and Lynn (2012) and Kock (2015) suggested to use full collinearity using VIF which is supported to be less than 3.3 to conclude that there is no common method bias. As shown in Table 1, the VIF values is less than 3.3 indicating that there is no common method bias in this study (Kock, 2015; Kock & Lynn, 2012).

Table 1. Normality and Multicollinearity

Construct	Sub-construct	Code	Normality		Multicollinearity
			Skewness	Kurtosis	Tolerance	VIF
JD	Job content	JC	−.526	−.343	.445	2.246
	Job Identification	JI	−.340	−.322	.360	2.776
	Delegation Authority	AD	−.614	.096	.420	2.382
	Job Suitability	JS	−.468	−.312	.373	2.678
EP	Efficiency of The Work	EW	−1.370	1.050	-	-
	Planning The Work	PW	−1.539	1.349	-	-
	Creativity And Innovation	CI	−1.017	1.558	-	-
	Making Efforts	ME	−.527	.356	-	-
Leadership	TFL	TFL	−.658	−.148	.308	3.243
	TSL	TSL	−.637	.891	.397	2.518

Source: self-developed.

4.2. Descriptive of the respondents

Table 2 shows the descriptive information of the respondents. It can be seen that the public sector employees in Oman were fairly distributed among males (n = 190; % = 45.2%) and females (n = 230; 54.8%). Regarding their qualifications, more than half of them had bachelor’s degrees (n = 239; 56.9%). Concerning their workplace, the majority of the Omani employees in the public sector who took part in this study come from the Ministry of Education (n = 264; 62.9%). Moreover, the majority of the respondents are staff or sub-ordinate employees (n = 293; 69.8%). Furthermore, the biggest group of respondents based on their work experience had 17 years and above of work experience (n = 196; 46.7%). Details of the descriptive information of respondents are shown in Table 2

Table 2. Summary of demographic information of respondents

Characteristic	Category	Frequency	Percentage
Gender	Male	190	45.2
	Female	230	54.8
	Total	420	100
Level Of Education	High school or less	27	6.4
	Diploma	47	11.2
	Bachelor	239	56.9
	Master	85	20.3
	PhD	22	5.2
	Total	420	100
Workplace	Ministry of Labour	19	4.5
	Ministry of Education	264	62.9
	Ministry of Health	110	26.2
	Ministry of Housing and Urban Planning	18	4.3
	Ministry of Commerce and Industry	9	2.1
	Total	420	100
Job Title	Manager	27	6.4
	Assistant Manager	19	4.5
	Head of Department	81	19.3
	Staff	293	69.8
	Total	420	100
Experience	Less than 5 years	27	6.4
	5–10 years	73	17.4
	11–16 years	124	29.5
	17 years and above	196	46.7
	Total	420	100

Source: self-developed based on the data collected for this study.

4.3. The assessment of the measurement model

The measurement model was assessed to ensure this study model’s convergent validity, discriminant validity, and reliability before proceeding with testing its hypotheses. As shown in Figure 2, all the indices of AMOS for the measurement model were achieved. Chi-square = 2657.393 with a degree of freedom (DF) of 1211 and CMINDF of 2.194 which is less than 5. The value of CFI (.922) and TLI (.918) was above the required level of 0.90. The value of RMSEA is 0.053, which is less than 0.08. These values are accepted based on the suggestions of Hair et al. (2010). After checking the indices, all the factor loadings were above 0.60 except for ME17, JI9, and TSL2 which were deleted. In addition, reliability and convergent as well as discriminant validity were achieved. As shown in Table 3, all the values for assessing the measurement model were achieved because Cronbach’s Alpha (CA), and Composite reliability (CR) is greater than 0.70. In addition, the average variance extracted (AVE) is greater than 0.50 indicating that convergent validity is achieved. For the discriminant validity, the indicator loading is higher than the cross-loading.

Figure 2. Measurement model.

Source: Self-developed.

Table 3. Assessment of measurement model

Second order	First order	Factor loading	CA	CR	AVE	EP	JD	LS
EP	EW	.79	0.955	0.966	0.876	0.936
	PW	.71
	CI	.69
	ME	.84
JD	JC	.75	0.923	0.935	0.784	0.653	0.885
	JI	.71
	DA	.68
	JS	.70
LS	TFL	.96	0.884	0.891	0.656	0.512	0.412	0.810
	TSL	.91	0.833	0.849	0.788

Source: self-developed based on the data analysis.

Figure 2 shows the finalized measurement model. It shows also the factor loading as well as the correlation among the variables. The indices are presented as well.

4.4. The assessment of the structural model

This section assesses the structural model of this study. It includes the evaluation of the R-square and testing the hypotheses of this study. The indices of AMOS of the goodness of fit index are examined and it is found that all the indices were achieved. The R-square of the EP accounted for 0.519 indicating that 51.9% of EP can be explained by JD while after including the moderators, the percentage increased to 61% indicating that JD, TFL, and TSL can explain 61% of EP.

The first hypothesis of this study proposed that the effect of JD on EP is positive. The finding in Table 4 showed that this proposition is true. The effect of JD on EP is positive and significant (β = 0.172; t > 1.96; p < 0.05). Therefore, H1 is supported. For the second and third hypotheses, the TFL and TSL were proposed to moderate the effect of JD on EP. The moderation was created by standardizing the mean value of TSL, TFL, JD, and EP and multiplying the product term of TFL and TSL with JD to create the interaction TSL*JD and TFL*JD. Next, the hypotheses were tested using the structural model in AMOS. This procedure is in line with Awang. Figure 3 shows the results of the moderating mode.

Figure 3. Moderating model.

Source: self-developed.

Table 4. Result of hypotheses testing

Hypothesis	I.V	Path	D.V	Estimate (β)	S.E.	C.R.	P	Label
H1	JD	→	EP	.172	.038	4.562	***	Supported

Source: self-developed

The results of testing the hypotheses are given in Table 5.

Table 5. Result of moderating effect of leadership style

Hypotheses	(β)	t-Statistics	p-Values	2.5%	97.5%	Label
TFL*JD -> EP	0.040	0.596	0.552	0.036	0.057	Not supported
TSL*JD -> EP	0.171	3.511	0.001	0.053	0.192	Supported

As can be seen, the effect of the interaction (TFL*JD) is also positive but insignificant at P-value larger than 0.05. Therefore, H2 is rejected. For H3, it is supported. The effect of JD on EP is moderated positively by TSL. Thus, H3 is supported as shown in Table 5. From the two-way interaction in Figure 4, it can be seen that the two lines are not in parallel and there is an interaction. This confirms that there is a moderation of TSL between JD and EP. This moderation is positive because the high TSL is above the low TSL indicating that the increase in TSL as a moderator will enhance the positive effect of JD on EP.

Figure 4. Two-way interaction.

Source: self-developed.

5. Discussion

This study examined the effect of JD on EP as well as the moderating effect of TSL and TFL in the context of the public sector in Oman. The findings showed that JD has a positive impact on EP. This indicates that when the level of JD in terms of defining roles, responsibilities, duties, and obligations increases, the level of EP in the Omani public sector will increase. The notion that written JD are given by the ministries in the public sector of Oman may account for the positive consequences of JD on EP. State-owned organizations in Oman averted confusion by using job identity. Additionally, employees’ job material is appropriate for their knowledge and abilities. These reasons may help to explain why JD have a favourable impact on EP in the Omani public sector. In the study conducted by Raju and Banerjee (2017), it was discovered that JD exerts a negative influence on the productivity of industrial employees. In contrast, Ramhit (2019) demonstrated that JD yields a positive effect on employee satisfaction and productivity. Furthermore, several researchers including Cen (2022) and Ehugbo et al. (2022) have independently established a direct and significant positive correlation between JD and EP. Nduta (2017) concluded that the effect of JD on employee performance is positive and significant. Despite that previous studies showed mixed result (Musyoka et al., 2016; Sudrajat, 2021), this study confirmed that the effect of JD on EP is positive and significant in the context of public sector in Oman.

The study also examined the moderating effect of TSL and TFL between JD and EP. The findings showed that TSL is an important moderator. The increase in the level of TSL as a moderator will increase the positive impact of JD on EP. Therefore, TSL acted as a positive moderator. However, the finding also showed that there is no moderating role of TFL between JD and EP. This could be due to the nature of the public sector which is rigid and the implementation of TFL is challenging because it is still in the emerging stage in the public sector in general and in developing countries in particular. The results showed that TSL moderates the effects of JD on EP which is in line with the result found by Lee and Wei (2017), Arumugam et al. (2019), Cobbinah et al. (2020) and Munawar et al. (2021) that TSL moderated the effect of job satisfaction on employee performance. However, in this study, TFL did not moderate the effect of JD on EP which is similar to the result found by Munawar et al. (2021) and Haryanto et al. (2022). While the other studies showed TFL has more effect than TSL (Lee & Wei, 2017, Sungu et al., 2019; Ugheoke, 2020; Cobbinah et al., 2020).

6. Implications

6.1. Theoretical implications

The present study has significantly expanded the existing body of knowledge and academic literature, with a specific focus on the domain of emerging economies. The primary emphasis of this research has been on a relatively understudied domain: the impact of JD on EP within the framework of the public sector. The aforementioned knowledge gap has been effectively addressed via the process of defining and operationalizing the concept of “JD” as well as conducting empirical investigations to assess its influence on EP. Furthermore, the study’s contributions include the examination of two comparatively recent leadership paradigms, namely TFL and TSL. The aforementioned leadership styles have garnered significant attention in recent years; yet their specific functions within the public sector, especially in emerging economies, are still not well understood. This research has made significant developments in this particular domain by examining the impacts of JD and EP in combination with the aforementioned factors. The results of this study have substantial implications. Firstly, it has been shown that TSL has a significant moderating influence in the relationship between JD and EP in the public sector. This clarifies the significance of leadership strategies that prioritize task management, incentive systems, and the establishment of clear expectations in enhancing EP within the given environment.

In contrast, the findings of the research indicate that TFL does not demonstrate a moderating influence within the public sector of Oman. The results of this study provide detailed perspectives on the suitability of this particular leadership style in many situations, indicating that its effectiveness may depend on a range of conditions. The contribution of this study is significant as it effectively addresses the contradictory and varied results found in prior literature about the impact of JD on EP. This research contributes to the existing body of knowledge by validating the importance of JD and explaining the different moderating impacts of various leadership styles. Consequently, it enhances the comprehensive understanding of the complex factors that influence employee outcomes. Furthermore, the research demonstrates its academic value through its novel methodology that integrates the JCT with TFL and TSL theories. The efficacy of this integrated framework in explaining EP in the public sector has been shown, consequently affirming the importance and applicability of these theories in this particular setting. It is important to acknowledge that the findings of this study have confirmed the validity of these theories within the specific setting examined. However, it is recommended that more research be conducted to verify the suitability of the TFL theory in other situations.

6.2. Managerial implications

Based on the findings as well as the descriptive information of the variables, the practical implications drawn from this study carry significant importance. The research underscores the crucial role of a well-defined JD in shaping EP. A clear and comprehensive JD, outlining distinct responsibilities and duties, emerges as a pivotal factor in influencing EP positively. JD should be specific in content so that employees can understand their duties and responsibilities. Consequently, the study’s findings hold valuable insights for decision-makers within the Omani public sector, urging them to proactively engage in regular reviews and updates of the JD to make it specific and relevant to each employee’s capabilities. The recommendation for periodic JD reviews is based on the understanding that work conditions and positions evolve over time. By tailoring the JD to align with these changes, the organization can ensure that employee roles remain aligned with the evolving demands of their positions. This adaptability ensures that the JD continues to foster a conducive work environment for enhanced EP.

A tangible application of this recommendation could involve establishing an accessible repository of JDs on official social media pages of the organization. By making JDs readily available to all employees, the organization fosters transparency and ensures that everyone is aware of their responsibilities and duties, promoting a sense of ownership and accountability. Furthermore, the study proposes that a comprehensive JD should delve into finer details, incorporating aspects like promotion processes, role functions, and criteria for rewards and bonuses. This expanded JD not only clarifies the pathways for advancement but also serves as a motivating guide for employees seeking recognition and progression. With a clear outline of how rewards and promotions are linked to performance, employees gain a clear understanding of the avenues available for their growth within the organization. A well-structured JD extends its impact beyond individual roles. It facilitates a broader understanding of the organization’s structure, where each employee’s role fits into the larger picture. This awareness minimizes the potential for role ambiguity and inter-departmental conflicts, fostering a harmonious and collaborative work environment.

TSL is found a significant moderating variable and decision makers are recommended to enhance the rewarding system and to link pay with performance. The TFL was found an insignificant moderator. However, decision makers are recommended to conduct workshops in public organizations to enlighten employees about the importance of TFL and to teach and educate managerial-level employees about the usefulness of TFL when it is practiced in the organization. This will lead to more implementation of TFL and increase the level of EP in the public sector in Oman.

7. Conclusion

This study was conducted in Omani public sector to understand the effect of JD on EP and to examine the moderating effects of TSL and TFL. The data was collected from employees working in five ministries and analysed using AMOS. The findings showed that the effect of JD on EP is positive. TSL but not TFL moderated the effect of JD on EP.

The limitations of this study include the collection of data from public sector employees and thus, the findings is limited to their perception. The findings are also limited to public sector and the variables that has been considered in this study such as TFL, TSL, JD, and EP. The JD is for public sector employees working in Oman.

To extend the findings of this study, further research is needed to address the JD in the context of other public and private sectors in emerging economies. Future research should focus on investigating if employee mindfulness could moderate and make stronger the positive effect of JD on employee job performance (Ruiz-Palomino et al., 2023). More studies are required to examine other types of leaderships such as the authentic leadership or to compare between the different leaderships style such as TFL, TSL, laissez-faire in the context of private and public sectors. Ethical leadership of peers and of top managers combinedly with JD that is specific could be a positive to ethical behaviour of employees (Ruiz et al., 2011). EP is critical for all organizations and having more studies by using different approach such as focus group or interview with selected employees to understand the predictors of EP can help decision makers to comprehend the aspects that can lead to better EP.

Correction

This article has been corrected with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Supplemental material

Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online at https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2023.2288362

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Shahab Ahmed Salim Mubarak AL Rawas

Shahab Ahmed AL Rawas is a PhD in Business Administration, at Infrastructure University Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. His research interests include human resources management, leadership styles, business administration, and public management. He has published a research article in Technium Business and Management Journal. He has been working for the Head of Human Resources Department at the University of Technology and Applied Sciences- Salalah with 12 years of practical experience in HR Management such as strategic plans for HRM. In addition, preparing and analyzing job descriptions, and specifications, and implementing recruitment interviews.

Mohd Dan Jantan

Mohd Dan Jantan is an Associate Professor at the Faculty of Business, Information, and Human Sciences, Infrastructure University Kuala Lumpur. He obtained his PhD from Northern Illinois University, USA in 2001, majoring in Urban and Regional Economics. His areas of research interest are applied economics, finance, and management. He has published many research papers in local and international journals.

Appendix

Job Description

a. Job content

1. “Written job descriptions are provided to each employee working in the organization

2. My job description contains tasks, obligations and responsibilities that I can easily understand.

3. My job description is reviewed on regular basis yearly

4. The words contained in my job description are written concisely and clearly.

5. My job descriptions are carefully arranged according to my work that I really have to do”

b. Job Identification (JI)

1. ”Proper job identification in my organization has avoided role ambiguities

2. Job identification alleviates job clashed at the Authority.

3. Job identification matches skills according to duties and Responsibilities.

4. job descriptions are used for evaluating employee performance.

5. My job description contains tasks, such as promotions, commissioned functions, awards, bonus, etc.”

c. Delegation Authority (DA)

1. “Authority is clearly defined

2. Delegation helps me to achieve my work in limited time

3. The direction of delegation of responsibility is clear

4. There is a level of independence in carrying out my duties

5. The direction of accountability is clear.”

d. Job Suitability (JS)

1. “Appropriateness of job responsibilities with educational background

2. Fill out my job description in accordance with the conditions of work and position that I carry

3. My job title written in the job description matches with my qualifications and experience

4. Job suitability with knowledge

5. Appropriateness of work with skills.

Employee performance

A. Efficiency of The Work (EW)

1. “I feel dedication, seriousness and ability to take responsibility

2. I enjoy professional skill or professionalism and technical knowledge required to carry out the work efficiently

3. I do my work according to specific policies and procedures”

4. I complete my work with in the time allocated

5. I do my work effectively without complaining”

B.Planning The Work (PW)

1. “Planning the work before starting its implementation contributes to setting the goals that need to be achieved

2. I have the ability to plan my work and its accomplishment according to the planned schedule

3. Planning the work before starting its implementation gives me a sense of comfort

4. Planning the work before starting its implementation will be better to do

5. I record down a number of activities in my to do list before starting on the day‘s work.”

C. Creativity And Innovation (CI)

1. “I am keen to make changes in my working

2. I stay away from repeating what others do in solving work-related problems

3. I feel bored of repeating the same procedures in doing the work

4. I have the ability to put forward ideas and solutions rapidly to face work-related problems

5. I have the ability to express my thoughts fluently and freely”

D. Making Efforts (ME)

1. “I feel there are keenness by the administration

2. Feeling proud of the work represents a motivation for me to make extra efforts

3. I have a desire to spend most of my time at my work.

4. I work overtime to complete my tasks

5. I combine the available resources very well to provide quality services”.

Transformatinal leadership

1. “Managers develop employees strength.

2. Managers instil pride for being associated

3. Emphasizes the importance of having a collective sense of mission.

4. Managers identify problems from many different angles.

5. Managers Seek different perspectives when solving problems

6. Managers Express confidence that goals will be achieved.

7. Articulates a compelling vision for the future.

8. Managers Spend time teaching and coaching.

9. Managers Suggest new ways of looking at how to complete assigned tasks.

10. Managers Talks optimistically about the future.”

Transactional leadership (TSL)

1. “Managers Focus attention on irregularities, mistakes, exceptions, and deviations from standards.

2. Managers Provide assistance in exchange for efforts.

3. Managers interfere after the problem become serious.

4. Managers Concentrates full attention on dealing with mistakes, complaints and failures

5. Managers Clear expectation for performance goals achievement

6. Managers Direct attention toward failures to meet standards.

7. Managers Keep track of all mistakes.

8. Managers discusses in specific terms who is responsible for achieving performance targets.

9. Managers expresses satisfaction when meet expectations

10. Managers Spends time teaching and Coaching”