Speed up the good deeds: new-normal Thailand and linguistic construction of Buddhist ‘Dana’ giving through a practice of ‘online merit-making’

Abstract

This article discusses the linguistic strategies shaped by the speed-up of online merit-making in Thailand’s post Covid-19. The study analyzes the language used in 100 online merit-making persuasion posts from various Facebook groups to uncover factors contributing to the acceleration of this linguistic phenomenon through Critical Discourse Analysis and Tomlinson’s sociological concept of speed and cultural immediacy. It uncovers patterns reflecting lingual acceleration that have not been systematically analyzed in previous studies on merit-making advertisement. Firstly, Thai words and phrases emphasizing urgency and immediacy exhibit prevailing beliefs and business ideology, urging prompt engagement in merit-making for immediate results. Secondly, invitation sentences employ language that emphasizes the calculable nature of merit-making, appealing to recipients’ reasoning and facilitating individualized participation. Lastly, emotionally charged words and expressions in charity advertisements evoke feelings of pleasure and relief, further stimulating participation in merit-making. The accelerating shift of lingual practice is enabled by technological advancements and social media. The examination of language strategies in digitalized merit-making provides readers with fresh insights into the changing pace of New-normal Thai society.

Keywords:

• Facebook
• immediacy
• language and ideology
• online-merit making
• speed and acceleration
• philantropy

REVIEWING EDITOR:

• Gaston Bacquet, School of Social and Political Science, University of Glasgow, United kingdom

SUBJECTS:

• Asian Studies
• Cultural Studies
• Thai
• Language & Linguistics

1. Introduction

Merit-making and donation are principles that can be found in many Indic religions. The associated customs, like sharing and almsgiving, are essential to promoting harmonious cohabitation among people. Thailand, widely acknowledged as a land of Buddhism places great emphasis on the merit-making process. It goes without saying that giving alms is an essential part of Buddhist Thai’s daily life, forming the people of Thailand’s enduring beliefs and cultural ties with religious ideology.

Fundamentally, Theravada Buddhism’s concept of ‘Puññakiriyā-vatthu’ (in Thai: บุญกิริยาวัตถุ) embodies the principle and practice of making merit, referred to as a location or the essence of merit-making. This method, elucidated in the Tripitaka, is delineated through Dānamaya (ทานมัย), Silāmaya (สีลมัย), and Bhāvanāmaya (ภาวนามัย). Among these, dānamaya predominantly prevails as the widely practiced process. The term ‘dāna’ (ทาน) giving; sharing, generosity. ‘Maya’, stemming from the Pali term ‘m’, signifies success or birth (Payutto, 2018). Therefore, ‘dānamaya’ signifies the merit derived from almsgiving or the beneficial outcomes of such acts. It involves bestowing one’s possessions upon others, exemplifying a form of merit attributed to giving. Almsgiving serves multifaceted purposes, including devotion in worship, contributing to public welfare, aiding others as an act of kindness, fulfilling personal desires, and fostering benevolence within society.

Practicing merit-making through almsgiving is an accessible method for everyone, encompassing acts like donating to monks, providing essentials, constructing facilities for monks or those in need, and rescuing animals. This practice carries the belief that one accrues significant merit by engaging in such deeds, with the capacity to extend positive influences to deceased relatives, friends, creditors, adversaries, or all sentient beings to reap benefits. For example, the act of making merit by offering oil for lighting a lamp is believed to enhance wisdom, promote clear thinking, eliminate problems, and overcome various obstacles (Chinbanchon, 2014). Additionally, the merits gained from offering fragrant substances and beautiful flowers to the Buddha lead to happiness and prosperity in life. Receiving the karmic results of such merits can result in a beautiful and radiant appearance, accompanied by positive qualities. When departing from this world, it is believed that one will be reborn in the celestial realm, surrounded by a host of celestial beings, dwelling in a blissful golden paradise. Alternatively, the merits from releasing animals appropriately into their natural habitat contribute to reducing the suffering of others, avoiding calamities, and finding happiness in life, as suggested by Tidtanawanno (2010, pp. 21–31), the merit-making actions directly influence the individual conducting them.

Merit-making is a fundamental aspect of Theravada Buddhist society, adapting to modernity with the transition from traditional temple donations to online contributions. According to the CAF World Giving Index, Thai people philanthropy primarily involves donating money to organizations (68%, ranking fifth globally), followed by helping strangers (51%) and volunteering (19%) (Volunteerspirit, 2019). This aligns with the research of Amornvitkijvecha (2017), which highlights how temples utilize mass media for public relations to encourage donations. These efforts aim to support various objectives such as constructing pavilions, restroom facilities, museums, and more, demonstrating a shift in traditional practices and an embrace of new communication technologies to engage spiritually (Amornvitkijvecha, 2017).

The emphasis on speed in modern life makes merit-making altering from the past. Rosa (2009), noted sociologists who consider the impact of acceleration in contemporary society, stated that it not only spreads culture, technology, economics, but also personal experiences. Their comprehensive analysis probes the challenges and adaptations arising from life in a high-speed societal context, unraveling the multifaceted implications of accelerated living across various dimensions of modern life. Furthermore, John Tomlinson demonstrated technological and economic transitions from industrial society to tele-mediated one is a crucial point in an analysis of the impact of speed to early 21st society where digital technology is a condition of new sense of immediacy (Tomlinson, 2007).

In context of Thai society, although the increasing of online merit-making has been evident since the beginning of the 2000s and has become normal behavior in the latter half of the 2010s. A survey conducted in 2016 indicated a significant rise in the number of people engaging in online philanthropy in Thailand. More than 60.53% of Thais believe that performing acts of merit through digital media yields the same results as doing so in person (Matichon, 2016; Ongkulna, 2016; Thansettakij, 2016). The modern practice of making merit has massively transformed owing to the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic since late 2019, which catalyzed global lifestyle shifts. The term ‘New Normal’ represents a fundamental shift in human behavior, necessitating a departure from previous lifestyles to ensure survival. This adjustment has spurred innovation and technological advancements, prompting the adaptation of concepts, visions, management approaches, and habitual behaviors. Consequently, various dimensions of everyday life have shifted away from their customary familiarity, mirroring changes observed in the practice of making merit.

Presently, Buddhists can engage in merit-making practices by maximizing their convenience and directness. Apart from traditional venues like temples, foundations, and hospitals, online avenues for merit-making have emerged, accessible through foundation websites, agency webpages, and various Facebook groups. These online platforms offer a range of activities, including virtual almsgiving, online prayer sessions, listening to sermons, virtual candle processions, releasing birds and fish, and redeeming animals—all facilitating merit-making through diverse foundations within the digital realm for example (Figure 1).

Figure 1. The poster invites individuals to engage in online merit-making by donating rice. (Source: Kradanbogboon, 2024).

Example 1:

 A visual media poster encourages participation in a communal endeavor to engage in acts of benevolence and contribute to constructing a crematorium.

The shared content is related to online merit-making for offering alms to monks. This merit-making practice is believed to bring benefits and fulfilment to those participating. It includes specifying a bank account number, 532-0-71645-111, at Krung Thai Bank under the account name ‘กองทุนเพื่อวัดชายแดน วัดชนบทในถิ่นทุรกันดาน’ (Border Temple Fund, Rural Temple in Thung Songkhan District) and indicating a starting amount of 1 Baht.

From the passage above, the article starts with the premise that speed and acceleration in cultural activities in different societies can be understood through the analysis of linguistic expressions. The article chooses to study merit-making because while Buddhist philosophy emphasizes the importance of mindfulness and the practice of delay for contemplation, the persuasive texts promoting merit-making reflect a mindset of speed and acceleration. These are significant characteristics of modernity, particularly in late modern society, where digital technology plays a crucial role in compressing space and time.

To analyze new phenomena, this article aims to illustrate the relationship between the concepts of speed, acceleration, and the changing dynamics of online merit-making in new-normal Thai society through analyzing persuasive advertising messages promoting online merit-making. The authors argue that immediacy is the central mindset used to connect the ideas of speed and acceleration in Thai-language online merit-making invitations. Immediacy serves as a discourse that advertisers use to entice interested individuals. The discourse of immediacy thus indicates the state of merit-making culture within the new-normal context.

2. Literature review

Since the 2000s, there has been a notable increase in studies focusing on Theravada Buddhism, particularly in Southeast Asia. Many of these works explore the relationship between Buddhist beliefs and their influence on religious movements and political campaigns, both historically and in contemporary contexts. However, research on the patterns of merit-making in the post-Covid-19 remains relatively limited. Specifically in Thailand, existing writings primarily highlight the significant rise in online merit-making activities, but they tend to focus more on gathering opinions rather than delving into the complexity of this phenomenon and its linguistic aspects, which play a crucial role in communication. Online merit-making can be considered a construct shaped by individuals through the medium of language. Language, being a potent influencer of thoughts and ideas, greatly influences societal behaviors and guides people’s actions within society. In this context, language plays a crucial role in attributing significance and value to online philanthropy, especially in discussions surrounding merit-making.

Exploring the various online platforms dedicated to merit-making reveals their prevalence on websites and numerous Facebook groups, such as those dedicated to temple construction, Buddha image crafting, and the Young Buddhist Association of Thailand’s Facebook page under Royal Patronage (Y.P.S.). These platforms serve as channels for sharing and disseminating posts, shaping beliefs and ideologies related to online merit-making as an essential aspect of the socialization process within Thai society.

Since 2000s, studies of Theravada Buddhism in Southeast Asian society have increased significantly, with many works indicating the relationship between Buddhist beliefs affecting religious movements and political campaigns, particularly in the case of Thailand where Theravada Buddhism has been used as a core of national identity historically and contemporarily (Iamsa-Ard et al., 2024). However, studies on the patterns of merit-making in the post-Covid-19 situation have not yet been extensively explored. In the case of Thailand, writings on the significant increase in online merit-making primarily focus on basic research aimed at exploring opinions rather than analyzing the complexity of the interplay between merit-making phenomenon and language. It could be said that online merit-making is a construct individuals foster through the medium of ‘language’. A powerful influencer of thoughts and ideas significantly can shape societal behaviors through their abilities in lingual practice. Thus, it is crucial in guiding people’s actions within society. In this context, language contributes to attributing significance and value to online philanthropy, particularly in discussions concerning merit-making. Exploring online channels dedicated to merit-making reveals their prevalence on web pages and various Facebook groups, such as those focusing on constructing temples, crafting Buddha images, and the Young Buddhist Association of Thailand’s Facebook page under Royal Patronage (Y.P.S.). These platforms serve as conduits for sharing and disseminating posts, shaping beliefs and ideologies surrounding online merit-making as an integral facet of the socialization process within Thai society.

2.1. On language and religious ideology

A review of pertinent research uncovered studies exploring the correlation between language and ideology in various contexts. Chotidilok (2014) investigated the connection between language and happiness through merit in the journal ‘In Bun’ Desired Happiness. Paksasuk (2019) delved into the discourse surrounding ‘merit’ in public media. Another study by Paksasuk (2019) examined business-oriented ideology in discussions about excellence within Dhamma books. Paksasuk and Sumniengngam (2018) explored the relationship between language and ideology. Chotidilok (2017) researched the relationship between language and ideology in discourse from Wat Phra Dhammakaya.

Even, the literature suggests that making merit, especially charity and donation, is deeply ingrained in Asian countries, particularly in Thailand, where it is systematically incorporated into Thai culture (Viphanphong et al., 2023, pp. 1–9). The online merit-making culture on Facebook is a subject that has not been thoroughly investigated from a linguistic perspective. Basically merit-making is seen as a form of social discourse in Theravāda Buddhism, guiding ethical considerations and agency (Maiti et al., 2020). It is also a dynamic process relative to specific historical contexts and tied to modes of production, expression, and dissemination (Schober, 2022). While the linguistic aspects of negative online behaviors have been studied, the linguistic analysis of online merit-making on Facebook remains unexplored. Therefore, further research is needed to understand the linguistic landscape of online merit-making and its relationship with Buddhist values and capitalist discourse.

Notably, most of these studies have centered on textual analysis of documents or books, with no specific exploration of social media. Consequently, a research gap exists regarding the language-ideology relationship, especially concerning invitations to participate in online merit-making. The researcher aims to explore this relationship within online merit-making invitation posts.

When considering academic research studying the relationship between language and religious ideologies in Thailand, it is evident that Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is commonly employed as primary methodology for analyzing discursive practices within Thai Buddhism. Words and phrases related to Buddhism and Buddhism commerce are thus scrutinized as linguistic manifestations of ideological viewpoints. Van Dijk (1998) defines ideology as a framework of ideas and beliefs embraced by various societal groups, aligning with the interests of these groups. As such, ideology influences and regulates the attitudes of different groups, nurturing the construction and arrangement of sociocultural knowledge (Panpothong, 2013, p. 18). Language is a pivotal vehicle for disseminating and expressing the ideological underpinnings that form the foundation of a society. Contrary to mere knowledge or social and cultural attitudes, the ideology elucidated by Van Dijk (2013) encapsulates fundamental convictions and crucial concepts that govern and structure collective opinions within society.

From Van Dijk (2013)’s point of view, ideology significantly shapes language use by framing how messages are constructed and expressed. Language ideology encompasses shared beliefs about language, communication, and its purpose within a collective order. It acts as a mediator between language practices and the socioeconomic and political structures. This influence is evident in language policy, where ideologies guide efforts to standardize a language. Ideology is also expressed through discourse structures, influencing rhetoric in language policy promotion. Language, characterized by complexity, serves as the core of ideology. Overall, ideology plays a critical role in shaping language use and understanding the intersection with various forms of inequality. He explained that an ideology is a fundamental principle that involves strong and true beliefs held by a group.

Therefore, an ideology is a silent set of assumptions, ideas, and value systems that are commonly shared within social groups (Hatim & Mason, 1997). This reference was later revealed by Munday (2016, as cited in, Gunawan, 2022), who defined ideology as a belief system that shows an individual’s worldview as its actualization.

In this regard, language plays a crucial role in shaping ideological perceptions in online merit-making. However, most research on the Thai linguistic relationship between merit-making and ideology, both domestically and internationally, has narrowly focused on the surface of ideological practices rather than historically and sociologically scrutinizing ideology within the context of Thai society. In other words, existing literature in Thai tends to overlook the potential benefits of incorporating contemporary social theories that recently proposed by noted sociologists.

Therefore, to better understand the roles of speed and acceleration to discourse of merit-making as both analytical categories and social phenomena, the researchers will further discuss the concept of speed as presented by Hartmut Rosa, John Tomlinson, and others. This will help illustrate the possibility of analyzing the new consciousness and cultural practices of merit-making in Thai society following the Covid-19 pandemic.

2.2. On social theory of speed

It could be claimed that Harmut Rosa’s works on speed are the most influential scholarship that grounded the debate on this issue since 2000s. His analysis suggests that modernity is characterized by an acceleration across various aspects of modern society, intensifying the overall pace of life. He emphasizes that acceleration and its contradictions, like deceleration, are not just part of modernity but define it as well. Acceleration also intersects with other modern categories: differentiation, rationalization, individualization, bureaucratization, and domestication (Rosa, 2013, pp. 3–5, 21).

By using the works of classical sociologists like Marx, Durkheim and Weber, Rosa elaborates on how acceleration influences these core aspects. He contends that acceleration complements and shapes these modernization processes. In short, Rosa connects acceleration closely with individualization, organizational differentiation, rationalization, and domestication, asserting its role in a significant social revolution (Rosa, 2009, pp. 109–111). His main argument is threefold. Firstly, he suggests that modernity embodies acceleration across its core aspects, defining it as a developmental principle of temporal modernity. He explores acceleration’s diverse functions, extent, and consequences, impacting structural and subjective dimensions. Lastly, by linking social pathologies to acceleration, he advocates for a reinvigoration of critical theory centered on acceleration and time (Rosa, 2010, pp. 67–97). Furthermore, Rosa also employs various pieces of evidence demonstrating how the economic principles of capitalism and linked technological advancements undeniably contribute significantly to driving modern acceleration (Vostal, 2014, p. 238)

To elaborate Rosa’s idea of speed, the review by Scheuerman (2006) discusses the concept of social acceleration as a core attribute of modernity and emphasizes the high-speed temporality of contemporary society. This concept provides a framework for understanding the fast-paced nature of online communication on platforms like Facebook. Additionally, the study by Bors and Ignat (2019) examines linguistic structures used on social network sites, including loan translations, false friends, and hybrid constructions, which have become pervasive in everyday conversation due to frequent use. These structures reflect the influence of high-speed communication and the flood of linguistic oddities to various areas of interpersonal and public communication. Thus, by analyzing the language used in online merit-making posts, one can identify the manifestations of social acceleration in the linguistic constructs within the context of Facebook.

Moreover, Tomlinson’s study on cultural speed provided an analytical framework for new characteristics of speed that emerges in the early twentieth-first century. His differentiation of mechanical speed, that developed in nineteenth century, and tele-mediated modernity by digital acceleration. Importantly, Tomlinson (2007) suggests that cultural speed, as manifested in cyber society, can be observed through language and the process of rationalization. It provided to expedite activities towards their goals. In this regard, speed becomes an essence of late modernity.

Tomlinson also proposes that the most crucial characteristic of speed in the context of late modernity lies in the sense of immediacy, which arises from the conditions of telecommunications and digital technology. He states that ‘immediacy’ in certain crucial ways marks a departure from an earlier era of ‘mechanical speed’ and define the concept as ‘cultural principle in relation to the technological - and particularly the communicational – bases of our particular era of modernity (Tomlinson, 2007, pp. 12, 74)’. Fundamentally, his idea of cultural immediacy consists of three core aspects: a culture of instantaneity, a sense of directness, and the significance of media that led to telemediated experience (Tomlinson, 2007, p. 75).

Considering Tomlinson’s contribution to analysis of speed as cultural phenomena that shed light on the modern practice of merit-making in Thai society. This study bases on Tomlinson’s definition of speed and culture of immediacy to understand everyday usage of discourse of speed in Thailand’s Buddhist ‘Dana’ giving as the researchers will examine in the next section.

2.3. On conceptual metaphors

The exploration of Conceptual Metaphors Theory (CMT) by Lakoff and Johnson (1980) illuminates a fundamental framework within cognitive linguistics, elucidating the intricate ways metaphorical mappings sculpt our comprehension of abstract concepts by grounding them within more tangible domains (Putterer, 2022). Central to CMT is the notion that metaphor constitutes a cognitive process wherein one domain, designated as the source domain, serves as a lens through which to apprehend another domain, known as the target domain (Tan, 2022). This theoretical construct underscores the systematic inherent in metaphors, distinguishing between conceptual and linguistic manifestations, and advocating for a multilayered approach to dissecting metaphorical mappings. CMT’s pervasive influence traverses various domains including poetry, news discourse analysis, and economic rhetoric, underscoring its versatility in deciphering how metaphors intricately shape our cognition and communication (Yu, 2022).

Kövecses (2018) delves into the realm of media communication, employing the lens of CMT to dissect the significance of metaphors within this domain. This review accentuates the pivotal role of metaphors in enhancing our understanding of media messages, shedding light on how contextual nuances shape metaphorical discourse within media narratives. Kövecses (2018) posits that CMT furnishes a robust framework for analyzing metaphors within media discourse, offering insights into the cognitive processes underlying metaphor selection and its subsequent impact on audience interpretation. Far from being mere embellishments, metaphors serve as potent tools that actively shape audience perception and comprehension of media content (Kövecses, 2018).

One salient contribution of CMT lies in its elucidation of how metaphors engender ‘virtual realities’ within media, projecting concepts from a source domain onto a target domain to construct immersive narratives (Kövecses, 2018). These metaphorical mappings sculpt coherent frameworks within media discourse, fostering both intertextual coherence across diverse texts and intratextual coherence within individual narratives. Kövecses (2018) underscores the indispensable role of context in shaping metaphorical meaning within media, particularly highlighting the susceptibility of headlines to contextual influences. Understanding the cognitive underpinnings of metaphor selection in this context-sensitive milieu is pivotal, as it unveils dominant trends within media discourse and raises ethical considerations regarding the potential manipulation of public opinion through metaphorical framing (Kövecses, 2018).

In parallel, Tan’s (2022) study delves into how The New York Times employs conceptual metaphors to portray COVID-19, shedding light on the cognitive mechanisms underpinning these metaphorical constructions. Through cognitive linguistics, the research dissects metaphorical expressions within COVID-19 discourse, unveiling the predominance of the ‘COVID-19 is a war’ metaphor and the prevalence of container metaphors. These findings resonate with the broader concept of human metaphors, wherein unfamiliar concepts are assimilated through familiar experiential lenses (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980).

In essence, Kövecses (2018) and Tan (2022) offer valuable insights into the intricate interplay between metaphors and media communication. By employing CMT as a cognitive lens, these studies underscore how metaphors not only structure media discourse but also construct immersive virtual realities that profoundly influence audience understanding. Moreover, the emphasis on contextual factors provides a robust framework for analyzing the nuanced dynamics of metaphorical discourse within media narratives, paving the way for future research endeavors to explore the diverse manifestations and ramifications of metaphors across various media formats.

The synthesis of Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) with empirical investigations into metaphorical constructs offers valuable insights for the research on ‘Online Merit-Making’ phenomena. By elucidating how metaphors shape our understanding of this contemporary Buddhist practice in the digital age, the integration of CMT facilitates a deeper exploration of the cognitive processes underlying linguistic constructions of ‘Dana’ giving. Tan’s (2022) empirical findings and Kövecses’s (2018) theoretical framework contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the linguistic dynamics inherent in contemporary Buddhist rituals conducted in the context of New-Normal Thailand.

3. Methodology

3.1. Research questions

1. How do persuasive advertising messages promoting online merit-making reflect the concepts of speed, acceleration, and immediacy within the context of the new-normal situation in Thailand?

2. What linguistic strategies are utilized in Thai-language online merit-making invitations to convey immediacy and attract participation, and how do these strategies contribute to the discourse of immediacy as a central mindset in online merit-making culture?

3. How does the discourse of immediacy, as manifested in online merit-making invitations, signify the evolving culture of merit-making within the new-normal context in Thailand, and what implications does this have for broader societal shifts and adaptations in contemporary Thai society?

3.2. Research design

This study falls into the category of qualitative research. It aims to present the relationship between language and philanthropy ideology in online merit-making posts in a detailed and comprehensive manner. Data were collected using language inviting people to join in making merit that appeared in social media groups and Facebook pages. The results of this study are expected to help understand the language strategies used in online merit-making invitation posts after Covid-19 pandemic. Including seeing the ideology in the media inviting people to join in online merit-making. Language analysis helps in considering whether participating in online merit-making will receive merit or have social benefits. Moreover, avoid being tricked by scammers or cyber thieves into transferring money.

3.3. Data collection

The researchers gathered sample data concerning online philanthropy by examining the language used in invitations to participate in philanthropy within Facebook groups and pages. The criteria for selection encompassed:

1. Facebook groups and pages boasting a minimum of 10,000 followers.

2. Posts encouraging online merit-making with at least 100 likes.

3. Posts inviting merit-making between 1 January 2022 and 31 December 2022.

4. Post relevance to online merit-making invitation.

5. Inclusion of captions in posts; posts solely comprising images were excluded from the analysis.

This study utilized purposive sampling, a technique commonly employed in qualitative research or investigations seeking comprehensive insights into the subject of study . The researcher collected information from 100 posts that enticed engagement in online merit-making, adhering to the selection criteria outlined for Facebook groups and pages. A total of 11 data sources were selected, as outlined in Table 1.¹

Table 1. Presents Facebook pages and groups dedicated to online merit-making, each boasting a follower count of 10,000 or more.

No	Page/Group Names	Followers	Link	Creation Date
1	Young Buddhist Association of Thailand Facebook page Under the Royal Patronage (Y.P.S.) เพจเฟซบุ๊กยุวพุทธิกสมาคมแห่งประเทศไทย ในพระบรมราชูปถัมภ์ (ย.พ.ส.)	130,000	https://www.facebook.com/ybatpage	10 October 2009
2	Facebook group saying good deeds, joining in making merit. กลุ่มเฟซบุ๊กบอกบุญ ร่วมทำบุญ	103,469	https://www.facebook.com/groups/212323268827145/	12 September 2011
3	Facebook page of Ariya Leelanano Meditation Center เพจเฟซบุ๊กศูนย์ปฏิบัติธรรมสมาธิอริยะลีลานาโน	28,778	https://www.facebook.com/AMCCenter55	9 January 2013
4	Facebook page, board, telling merit, casting amulets. เพจเฟซบุ๊กกระดาน บอกบุญ หล่อพระ	400,000	https://www.facebook.com/Kradanbogboon	24 October 2013
5	Facebook page for making merit, casting Buddha amulets, building temples and various merit-making ceremonies. เพจเฟซบุ๊กบอกบุญ หล่อพระ สร้างวัดและงานบุญต่างๆ	21,000	https://www.facebook.com/ts3sf?locale=th_TH	1 April 2014
6	Facebook group saying good deeds, building temples, building Buddha statues. กลุ่มเฟซบุ๊กบอกบุญ สร้างวัด สร้างพระ	15,613	https://www.facebook.com/groups/nganbun/	5 December 2014
7	Facebook group saying good deeds to volunteers. กลุ่มเฟซบุ๊กบอกบุญ จิตอาสา	21,915	https://www.facebook.com/groups/1612544588973840/	8 December 2014
8	Facebook page Wat Krapho Chang Mor Sisaket Province เพจเฟซบุ๊กวัดกระโพธิ์ช่างหม้อ จังหวัดศรีสะเกษ	220,000	https://www.facebook.com/sayfa1990	2 August 2017
9	Saphan Bun Facebook page เพจเฟซบุ๊กสะพานบุญ	90,000	https://www.facebook.com/Mr.koonkondee	7 December 2018
10	Facebook page of Dhamma Practice Center, Phalang Sattha Dhamma Foundation เพจเฟซบุ๊กศูนย์ปฏิบัติธรรมมูลนิธิพลังศรัทธาธรรม	74,000	https://www.facebook.com/profile.php?id=100067466888062	31 December 2018
11	Facebook page for merit-making news เพจเฟซบุ๊กข่าวสารงานบุญ	44,000	https://www.facebook.com/newsboontourthailand	30 March 2019

There are factors influencing follower counts within Facebook groups and pages dedicated to merisharing activities. The highlights key distinctions between these platforms

1. Accessibility: Facebook Pages offer immediate followership upon clicking the ‘like’ button, while Facebook Groups require membership requests and may have stricter approval processes.

2. Content Focus: Groups and pages centered on sharing merit (refer to data points 2 and 4 in the table) tend to attract larger followings. These platforms function as independent intermediaries, enabling temples and charities (unaffiliated with the platform) to disseminate information and solicit participation in charitable endeavors without limitations.

3. Platform Age: The creation date of the Facebook group or page seems to positively correlate with follower count. Conversely, groups and pages with repetitive content (as observed in data points 5, 6, 7, and 11) generally have lower follower engagement.

4. Established Reputation: Pages and groups associated with well-known temples and charities in the region (examples: data points 1, 8, and 10) boast significantly higher follower counts. For instance, Wat Krapho Chang Mor in Sisaket Province attracts a large audience due to its renowned sculptures and cultural significance.

5. Content Strategy and Donation Requests: The focus and frequency of content can significantly impact follower count. Data point 3, established in 2013 as a meditation center, solely focuses on religious content and avoids soliciting regular donations. This approach, compared to data point 10 (another meditation center that consistently requests donations for sick monks and patients), results in an upper follower base.

In conclusion, follower counts on Facebook groups and pages for merit-sharing activities might be affected by several key factors: platform type, platform creation date, content focus, and the frequency of donation requests. These variables contribute to the observed variations in follower counts.

3.4. Data analysis

The gathered data underwent qualitative analysis using thematic analysis (. This involved categorizing linguistic strategies and intentions observed in media showcasing audience participation in charitable events. The analysis focused on the language’s invitation aspect, encompassing linguistic levels and receiver engagement. The researcher employed a comprehensive language selection method, considering textual content, contextual relevance, and alignment with underlying ideologies. This process aimed to derive meaning and significance from the data presented descriptively in the analysis results.

This study explores language strategies employed in online invitations for merit-making aimed at engaging recipients in charitable activities. Creators of these posts tactically use language to evoke specific emotions in the audience, fostering online philanthropic behavior. The research analyzed language strategies present in these posts based on the following principles

1. Omitting duplicate text within posts to avoid redundancy in frequency analysis. For example, if the same donation request appears repeatedly in a single post, it would be counted as one instance, not multiple instances for each repetition.

2. Segregating language strategies based on punctuation and content. For instance, in cases where a donation invitation comprises multiple sentences within a single post without full stops in Thai language to separate them, consideration should be given to spacing and the intended meaning such as, the passage ‘Quickly donate!!!/Release the fish/Special day, special life/Please release fish on the auspicious day, December 19th, 2564/Account number 020309973939, Account name: Phra Khru Kanyanwijak/² บุญด่วน! !!/ปล่อยปลา/วันพระ 1 บุญ เพื่อ 1 ชีวิต/ขอเชิญปล่อยปลาหน้าเขียง/วันพระใหญ่เดือน 1 วันที่ 19 ธันวาคม 2564/ธ. เลขบัญชี020309973939 ชื่อบัญชี พระครูญาณวิจักขณ์/.

3. Evaluating language strategies employed in posts inviting participation in online merit-making, considering text analysis that stimulates interest, post headlines, and intentions. As there may be other content disseminated within pages or groups, data collection is specifically directed towards content that solicits online donations for merit-sharing activities.

The investigation comprised 100 posts meeting specified criteria, discussing merit-making, financial donations, aiding distressed individuals, rescuing animals, and creating auspicious opportunities. The study identified language strategies within these posts, occurring 923 times, intended to encourage people to engage in online merit-making through Facebook.

4. Findings

In the digital landscape, merit-making invitations have emerged as a captivating phenomenon, weaving together Buddhist beliefs, persuasive tactics, and prevailing socio-economic attitudes. This research delves into the intricate language strategies employed within these invitations, revealing a fascinating interplay of cultural values, contemporary sensibilities, and the underlying influence of market-oriented ideologies.

4.1. Message presenters: guardians and catalysts of merit-making

4.1.1. Temples

Temples are the cornerstone of Buddhist practices and traditions. Their online presence extends their reach and influence, enabling them to connect with a broader audience and foster a sense of community among Buddhists. Through merit-making invitations, temples fulfil their role as guardians of Buddhist values, disseminating information about merit-making practices and encouraging participation in these endeavors (Department of Religious Affairs, Ministry of Education, 2003).

4.1.2. Ordinary individuals

Alongside temples, ordinary individuals have emerged as prominent message presenters. They use social media platforms to share invitations and encourage participation in online merit-making activities. This phenomenon highlights the democratization of religious expression in the digital age, empowering individuals to promote Buddhist values and practices actively. The prevalence of dedicated pages or groups supporting merit-making initiatives further underscores this trend, demonstrating the collective power of individuals to amplify their voices and engage a broader community.

4.2. Persuasive language strategies: weaving Buddhist teachings with contemporary sensibilities

Message presenters employ diverse persuasive language strategies to captivate the audience and entice participation. These strategies skillfully blend Buddhist teachings with contemporary sensibilities, tailoring the message to resonate with the target audience.

4.2.1. Speech acts: guiding and persuading through language

The language within online merit-making invitations encompasses a rich tapestry of speech acts, each serving a specific purpose in guiding and persuading readers (Searle, 1969). Directives instruct individuals on how to participate in merit-making activities, while explanations provide detailed information about the benefits and significance of these endeavours. These speech acts function as a roadmap, guiding readers through the merit-making process and fostering a sense of understanding and engagement.

4.2.2. Emphasis on benefits: Unveiling the rewards of merit-making

The discourse consistently highlights the potential benefits of merit-making, painting a compelling picture of the positive outcomes awaiting those participating (Parimutto et al., 2019). From improved fortune and social standing to wealth accumulation and protection from obstacles, the language underscores the tangible rewards associated with merit-making, appealing to the desires and aspirations of the audience.

4.2.3. Invitations and commands: extending a warm welcome and nudging engagement

To encourage participation, the language utilizes inviting and directive phrases, extending a warm welcome and gently nudging individuals towards engagement (Holmes, 2013). Phrases like ‘invite to release fish’ or ‘don’t miss out on making merit’ create a sense of urgency and opportunity, prompting readers to consider the benefits of joining the merit-making endeavor.

4.2.4. Solicitation: evoking empathy and compassion through shared concerns

Recognizing the innate human desire to help others, the language incorporates solicitation techniques, highlighting issues that require assistance from the audience (Johnstone, 2007). Expressions that emphasize the plight of those in need evoke empathy and compassion, encouraging readers to contribute to merit-making activities to impact the world positively.

4.3. Underlying capitalist ideology: a reflection of societal values

Despite the deeply spiritual roots of merit-making, the language employed in online invitations reveals an underlying capitalist ideology, reflecting the pervasive influence of market-oriented values in contemporary society. This ideology manifests through strategies such as:

4.3.1. Lexical selection: aligning merit with prosperity and advancement

The vocabulary employed often associates merit-making with achieving prosperity, financial stability, and increased power (Levelt, 1989). Terms like ‘wealth accumulation’ and ‘increased status’ align with capitalist ideals of material success and social advancement, appealing to the desire for personal betterment and upward mobility.

4.3.2. Specifying monetary amounts: quantifying merit and aligning with market concepts

The posts often emphasize specific monetary amounts for donations, deviating from the core Buddhist principles that focus on the act of giving itself rather than its monetary value (Parimutto et al., 2019). This emphasis on quantifiable amounts aligns with capitalist notions of exchange and value, suggesting that merit can be acquired through financial contributions, mirroring the transactional nature of many commercial transactions.

4.3.3. Sense of urgency: creating time pressure and aligning with scarcity

The language frequently conveys a sense of urgency, urging individuals to participate in merit-making activities promptly . Phrases like ‘urgent merit’ or ‘don’t miss out’ create a feeling of time pressure, suggesting that opportunities for merit-making are limited and should not be missed. This aligns with capitalist marketing strategies that emphasize scarcity and create a sense of urgency to encourage immediate action and consumption.

4.4. Conceptual metaphors: shaping the perception of merit-making

The discourse surrounding online merit-making invitations extends beyond persuasive language to include conceptual metaphors, influencing individuals’ understanding of merit within a capitalist framework (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). One prevalent metaphor is ‘merit is food’ (บุญคืออาหาร), which portrays merit as a commodity readily obtained through online channels, akin to ordering food online.

Another metaphor, ‘merit as a transaction’ (บุญคือการลงทุน), positions merit-making as an investment with anticipated future returns. This framing emphasizes the potential benefits of merit, encouraging participation to invest in a better future, aligning with capitalist ideals of maximizing returns.

Similarly, the metaphor ‘status as an object’ (ฐานะคือวัตถุสิ่งของ) suggests that engaging in merit-making can directly enhance one’s social standing. Phrases like ‘lift your status’ (ยกฐานะ) imply that merit is a tangible object that can be acquired to attain a higher social position, reflecting materialistic values and the pursuit of status symbols.

Additionally, metaphors such as ‘merit as a journey’ (บุญคือการเดินทาง) or ‘merit as a light’ (บุญคือแสงสว่าง) depict merit-making as a path towards spiritual enlightenment or a source of guidance away from negativity. These metaphors contribute to a nuanced understanding of merit as a transformative and illuminating force.

Investigating these conceptual metaphors provides valuable insights into how online merit-making invitations aim to resonate with their audience and shape their perception of religious practice in the digital age. By understanding the underlying metaphors used, individuals can gain a deeper appreciation for the multifaceted nature of merit-making and its significance within contemporary society.

Upon closer examination, it becomes evident that the online merit-making invitation closely resembles a business activity. Participants invest in posts to enhance engagement, with the promise of wealth in the form of merits for donors. However, this socio-economic perspective reveals a transactional merit-making approach focused on tangible returns rather than inner purification or tranquility. This alignment with the business ideology is discussed in Dharma Books by Paksasuk and Sumniengngam (2018). Analyzing language strategies in the invitations sheds light on Buddhist beliefs and Thai society’s socio-economic attitudes. The identified strategies include speech acts, referencing, lexical selection, and conceptual metaphor, illustrating the urgency in the discourse and encouraging individuals to participate in merit-making. Merit-Making is depicted as a time-sensitive endeavour essential for maximizing benefits, including improvements in life, wealth, job stability, lifespan, and overall well-being.

5. Discussion

From considering language strategies and discursive practice mentioned above, the study identifies factors contributing to the lingual acceleration of online merit-making through the language used in online merit-making invitation posts, as follows:

5.1. Thai words or phrases substituting for speed and urgency in merit-making linked to prevalent beliefs

In Thai language, there exists a set of words or linguistic expressions utilized to reflect speed and convey meanings pertaining to prevalent beliefs or business ideologies. These words or phrases reflect the urgency to accelerate merit-making to see immediate results, rather than relying on future outcomes, which contradicts the beliefs of Theravada Buddhism. Examples include adjectives indicating urgency, such as ‘urgent (ด่วน)’ in the phrase ‘urgent merit-making!!! release fish on Buddhist holy day (บุญด่วน!!! ปล่อยปลา วันพระ 1 บุญ เพื่อ 1 ชีวิต). Additionally, verbs such as ‘turn (พลิก)’ and ‘change (เปลี่ยน)’ in the phrase ‘turn over merit, change life: join funeral merit-making (บุญพลิก ชีวิตเปลี่ยน ขอเชิญร่วมทำบุญโลงศพ)’ signify urgency through language, indicating that life will change immediately upon engaging in merit-making. Furthermore, the qualifier ‘only (เพียง)’ in the phrase ‘only 1 baht per person (เพียงคนละ 1 บาท)’, reflects a small monetary amount, urging readers to promptly contribute the mentioned sum. A similar case appears in another invitation: ‘Join in offering holy water to monks to support water and electricity expenses, for only 29 baht per set’.³ reflects a small monetary amount, urging readers to promptly contribute the mentioned sum.

Some phrases that demonstrate the results or blessings obtained from merit-making also stimulate the rapidity of online merit-making. For example, ‘building a concrete road to Doi Suthep temple, philanthropists will have abundant wealth.’⁴, ‘performing great deeds leads to a long life and financial stability, enhancing one’s career, each person donates 9 baht (บุญใหญ่ อายุยืน การเงินคล่องตัว เสริมดวงการงาน คนละ 9 บาท).’ and ‘merit-making leads to blessings and good fortune (ทำบุญสะเดาะเคราะห์ รับโชคลาภ)’.

Lastly, the term ‘online (ออนไลน์)’ clearly signifies the transformation of merit-making practices in the new normal. For example, ‘online almsgiving: offering food to monks at Wat Sri Sodharam (สังฆทานออนไลน์ ถวายพระสงฆ์สามเณรชาวเขาวัดศรีโสดา)’ and ‘invitation to make merit by offering rice online. (ขอเชิญทำบุญตักบาตรข้าวสวยออนไลน์) ‘. Moreover, there is vocabulary use indicating the frequency of merit-making to emphasize the urgent need for donations, such as ‘everyday offering, monthly almsgiving (ใช้ทุกวัน ถวายทุกเดือน)’. Additionally, imperative sentences are employed to prompt immediate action from the recipients such as ‘Spread the merit (บอกต่อบุญ)’. In this context, it means instructing the recipients to share or forward this message to other individuals.

5.2. The set of words or phrases in invitation sentences reflecting the notion that merit-making is calculatability: logical, expectational, and clear, where recipients utilize reasoning to engage in merit-making

The study found that the speed of modern society reflects an increased use of reasoning by humans. This reasoning involves the potential for calculation and predicting outcomes, implying that certain actions must be calculable. In online merit-making invitation advertisements, there are sets of words in the Thai language that reflect receivers’ reasoning in decision-making for merit-making. Receivers clearly understand what needs to be done, how it should be done, and the results of those actions. It can be claimed that these aspects of cyber merit-making have not been analysed in recent research on ‘Dana’ practice in contemporary Thai society, such as Amornvitkijvecha (2017), Chotidilok (2017), Paksasuk and Sumniengngam (2018), and Paksasuk (2019)

Moreover, the language used demonstrates convenience and a faster method of merit-making, indicating that merit-making is individualistic, unlike in the past where it required complex processes, methods, and group coordination. The acceleration of modern society shows that individuals can engage in merit-making by themselves through money transfers for donations. Thai language expressions include specifying the amount of money or items to be offered clearly, such as ‘join merit-making to build Visakha Puja Pavilion, 2 Units (ร่วมบุญสร้างท้าวเวสสุวรรณ จำนวน 2 องค์)’, ‘at Huay Nam Yen temple, no host required, only 1 baht per person (วัดห้วยน้ำเย็น ไม่มีเจ้าภาพกฐิน เพียงคนละ 1 บ.)’, ‘join offering rice, each offering is 9 baht (ร่วมถวายข้าวสาร กองบุญละ 9 บาท)’, ‘building a hospital, construction budget of 70,000,000 baht (สร้างโรงพยาบาล งบประมาณก่อสร้าง 70,000,000 บาท)’. Additionally, clear bank account details of temples or foundations for money transfers are provided, such as ‘transfer to savings account, Siam Commercial Bank, Seacon bangkae branch, account number 232-188015, or ATM’,⁵ ‘Kasikorn bank, Phatthanakan branch, account number 034-269529-9 (ธ.กสิกรไทย สาขาภาษีเจริญ เลขที่ 034 269529 9)’. Specifying the date, time, and location also illustrates the method of merit-making, such as ‘invitation to host triangular gable posts, Sunday, 31 October 2021, at vipassana youth center, Chanrom, Surin province’.⁶

Moreover, indicating in advertisements how the donated money will be used or what are the outcomes of engaging in merit-making serves as a primary reason for recipients to decide to engage in merit-making. For example, ‘invitation to host triangular gable posts… to improve common bathrooms, systems, air conditioning, and water quality (install consumer drinking water filtration systems) and improve meditator accommodation rooms.’,⁷ ‘merit-making to redeem karma and save cows’ lives (บุญตัดกรรม ไถ่ชีวิตแม่โค).’, ‘building a glass wall (สร้างกำแพงแก้ว)’, ‘building a hospital (สร้างโรงพยาบาล)’, ‘merit-making to redeem karma and relieve suffering, completing bathrooms at Mae Id temple (บุญกฐินปลดทุกข์ สร้างห้องน้ำวัดแม่อีด ให้แล้วเสร็จ)’.

5.3. The experience gained from the speed of modern society has led to the use of emotionally charged words and expressions in charity advertisements

These include verbs that indicate an increase in factors that bring happiness, such as wealth, power, and abundance. For example, ‘fulfilled in virtuous deeds, warm in righteousness (อิ่มในบุญอุ่นในธรรม).’, ‘increase in religious power (เพิ่มอำนาจวาสนา).’, ‘creating abundance’, and ‘achieving miracles and high status (สร้างบารมี สร้างปาฏิหาริย์ยกฐานะ)’. Additionally, there are adjectives reflecting the belief that fortune or life is an object, such as ‘keeping one’s life or fortune high, not falling low (ทำให้ชะตาชีวิตสูง ไม่ตกไปที่ต่ำ).’ and ‘boosting one’s life, the money doesn’t decrease. (หนุนดวงชีวิต ทรัพย์ไม่ทรุด)’.

Furthermore, there are verbs reflecting the emotions experienced when relieved from suffering by participating in charitable acts, such as ‘alleviating sorrow, distress, illness, and disaster (คลายทุกข์ โศก โรค ภัย).’, and ‘being relieved from suffering, sin, karma, duty, misfortune, and calamity.’⁸

The activities that encourage participation in merit-making create a sense of speed, allowing individuals engaging in merit-making to anticipate how their actions will yield results more quickly. At the very least, it accelerates the fruition of merits. This speed in the modern world is a component of modernity, driven by reason. Through reasoning, individuals can anticipate future events clearly, understanding when and how they will occur, and each step in the process must be measurable. Without clear measurement or defined steps, outcomes under this speed or acceleration cannot be achieved.

What occurs is, therefore, a combination of acceleration of intensively individualized good deed and discourse of immediacy in digitalized merit-making. When considering the results of studies, it is found that understanding the cultural speed of the modern world, with varied experiences in different societies, is best achieved through changing language. Therefore, studying the language used in online merit-making invitations enables us to understand the rush of donation contemporary Thai society.

6. Conclusion

In this research article, the authors analyze how online merit-making differs from those in the past, where older form of charity was primarily a communal affair, with most people gathering. However, in today’s fast-paced world, particularly through technology and social media, merit-making has become more individualized. This means that people can engage in merit-making activities on their own without needing to involve others. The discussion of the research findings reveals that contemporary merit-making activities involve several conditions.

Nevertheless, It would be clear to state that this research mainly focuses on a linguistic patterns of online merit-making posts within various Facebook groups through the concept of speed and cultural immediacy. The authors tried to investigate how the advertisement language was structured by the category and reflected ideas of rationalization, acceleration, individualization and, above all, sense of immediacy. It also explored the way Buddhist values intersect or diverge with capitalist discourse in the context of online merit-making on Facebook. However, this study is limited in two ways. First, the authors have not clearly separated the Facebook sites and groups based on the owner’s location, capital, or province, even advertising messages partly informed the target place of donation. Second, the authors still require an examination of audience’s changing awareness, which can be obtained through the interview method.

Above all, language is pivotal in shaping ideological perceptions within the context of online merit-making. The choice of words, linguistic constructs, and communication styles used in online posts not only conveys information but also influences how individuals interpret and internalize the ideological aspects associated with merit-making. By this regard, Buddhist values have intersected with capitalist discourse within the context of speeding-up online merit-making on Facebook since Covid-19 pandemic. It has led to the emergence of various online platforms for merit-making, where donors can track their contributions and continue donating (Neather, 2022). These platforms provide convenience and encourage donors to engage in charitable acts, aligning with Buddhist values of generosity and compassion.

It could be said that, meanwhile traditional Thai Buddhist teachings emphasize altruism and compassion through merit-making both individual and communal levels, contemporary practice is positioned as a versatile concept for addressing broader societal issues. Consequently, individuals and organizations now seek substantial donations, ranging from financial assistance for abandoned elderly individuals, food for poor stray cats and dogs, to monetary contributions for children born out of wedlock. Some entities operate under the pretext of seeking donations to aid the less fortunate and support temples. However, discerning online merit-making activities proves challenging due to the inherent difficulty in verifying these endeavors on digital platforms. Furthermore, inviting people to engage in merit-making through social media has further blurred the divide between urban and rural communities. The urban sector, representing a lifestyle controlled by speed and symbolizing modernity, contrasts with the rural sector, which embodies a slow life (Tomlinson, 2007). This distinction is becoming increasingly blurred as the temple and rural communities can quickly mobilize funds from both urban and non-urban residents.

Thus, the main contribution of this research is that, although, Buddhist principles emphasize mindfulness and contemplation, the language of merit-making in online media radically accentuates the importance of speed and the rush of donation. The influence of capitalism and consumerism has created conditions for accelerating philanthropy. Cultural immediacy has shifted the preference for thorough consideration or ‘‘slow but sure’ approaches to prioritizing quick results, often quantified with clear numbers. This change aligns with the need for faster production and turnover times under a digital mode of production.

Since speed can inherently induce pleasure, thrilled and excitement, online philanthropy, with its ability for instant money transfers, can lead to satisfaction almost immediately. The emotional impact on the doers is no less significant than the value of ‘Dana’ giving in traditional Buddhist practices. This synchronization of capitalist promotion and traditional Buddhist values highlight a noticeable shift in the context of online philanthropy.

In conclusion, the language and discourse in online merit making advertisements serve to expedite the practice and pleasure derived from the quick results of charitable acts. It can be clearly seen that, as an adrenaline rush, online giving transfers provide a sensory experience that leads to instant gratification from having good deed immediately. The satisfaction mentioned above is different from the experience of spending excessively on online shopping, which may offer happiness, fun, and indulgence but often lacks mindfulness. While online merit-making may be an act without immediate expectations of reward, it is believed that the merits will eventually return to the giver in other forms in the future or afterlife. The activity of online merit-making on Facebook has evolved into a cyberculture, which itself is a form of a speed-driven culture (Hassan, 2009). In Thailand’s the new normal situation, the culture of immediacy becomes a significant condition for the new mode of merit-making discourse and its language strategies.

Author contributions

Thatdao Rakmak: research design, data collection, literature review, analyze linguistic content, CDA, write and revise manuscript. Thanapas Dejpawuttikul: research design, literature review, construct analytical framework and main argument, write and revise manuscript. Kosit Tiptiempong: review and proofread manuscript.

Acknowledgement

We extend our sincere gratitude to the reviewers for their insightful comments and valuable feedback, which significantly contributed to the enhancement of this research paper. Special appreciation is extended to Assistant Professor Dr. Kiki Juli Anggoro for his proofreading efforts, ensuring the accuracy and clarity of our manuscript. Additionally, we thank Ms. Jittinan Collam for her assistance in data collection, which was integral to the completion of this study.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Thatdao Rakmak

Thatdao Rakmak (first author) is an assistant professor in Thai language at the School of Liberal Arts, Walailak University, Thailand. She is committed to scholarly collaboration and actively engages with fellow authors on projects that demand a nuanced understanding of linguistics. Thatdao’s research currently focuses on pragmatics, sociolinguistics, and the intricate dynamics of Thai language usage.

Thanapas Dejpawuttikul

Thanapas Dejpawuttikul (corresponding author) is an assistant professor in southeast Asian studies at the School of Liberal Arts, Walailak University, Thailand. He has background in history discipline and political science. Thanapas’ academic interest was shifted from general Asian history to intellectual history of Thailand and Myanmar. His current research focuses on the issues of modern Thai historiography, agrarian transition, and problem of impoliteness in southern Thailand with comparative perspective.

Kosit Tiptiempong

Kosit Tiptiempong (co-author) is an associate professor at the Institute of Global Studies, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. His research specialization lies within the field of Humanities, encompassing areas such as foreign language education, the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR), as well as Thai language and culture.

Notes

1 Data collected on December 7, 2023.

2 The punctuation mark “/” signifies the end of an utterance.

3 In Thai: “บอกต่อบุญ ร่วมถวายน้ำพระสงฆ์ เพื่อบำรุงค่าน้ำค่าไฟ เพียงแพคละ 29 บาท”.

4 In Thai: “สร้างถนนคอนกรีตขึ้นพระธาตุดอยลาง คนอุปถัมภ์ เงินทองไม่ขาดมือ บริวารมาก”.

5 In Thai: “โอนเข้าบัญชี ออมทรัพย์ ธ.ไทยพาณิชย์ สาขาซีคอนบางแค เลขที่ 232 188015 หรือตู้ ATM ทั่วประเทศ”.

6 In Thai: “ขอเชิญร่วมเป็นเจ้าภาพทอดกฐินสามัคคี วันอาทิตย์ที่ 31 ตุลาคม 2564 ณ ศูนย์วิปัสสนายุวพุทธฯ บ้านจันรม จ. สุรินทร์”.

7 In Thai: “ขอเชิญร่วมเป็นเจ้าภาพทอดกฐินสามัคคี…เพื่อปรับปรุงห้องน้ำรวม ปรับปรุงระบบ ปรับอากาศ ปรับปรุงคุณภาพน้ำ (ติดตั้งระบบกรองน้ำอุปโภคบริโภค) ปรับปรุงห้องพักผู้ปฏิบัติธรรม”.

8 In Thai: “พ้นทุกข์ พ้นบาป พ้นกรรม พ้นเวร พ้นเคราะห์ พ้นโรคภัย พ้นวิบัติ”.