Abstract
VIKING-AGE ICONOGRAPHY is mostly studied through stone sculpture and carvings and through metal dress accessories, which are often poorly contextualised finds. Here we present a new approach by studying an assemblage of casting moulds for figurative dress accessories from an early 9th-century workshop context in Ribe (Jutland, Denmark). We provide digital reconstructions of the fragmented moulds, including ‘Valkyrie’ pendants showing female figures bearing weapons. Comparable finds are mainly found in western Scandinavia, and the motifs demonstrate familiarity with images from Classical Antiquity and the Carolingian Renaissance. By highlighting iconographic and stylistic parallels with the tapestries of the Oseberg ship burial, we apply a novel perspective to the discussion of the armed woman motif and other Viking-Age figurative art. We argue that the common theme of the images is not the portrayal of heroic or mythological beings, but is instead ritual performance, in which women played a central role. We also consider the implications of the urban production context for this group of objects.
Résumé
Recoller les morceaux : performance, rituelle, transgression du genre et innovation iconographique à Ribe pendant la période viking par Pieterjan Deckers, Sarah Croix et Søren Sindbæk
L’iconographie de la période viking est étudiée principalement à travers la sculpture et les bas-reliefs en pierre, ainsi que par le biais d’accessoires vestimentaires en métal, qui sont souvent mal contextualisés. Nous présentons une nouvelle approche se basant sur l’étude d’un assemblage de moules de fonderie pour accessoires vestimentaires figuratifs provenant d’un atelier du début du 9e siècle à Ribe (Jutland, Danemark). Nous publions des reconstructions numériques des fragments de moules, notamment des pendentifs de type « valkyrie » montrant des figures féminines armées. Ce type se retrouve principalement dans l’ouest de la Scandinavie. Les motifs montrent une certaine familiarité avec les images de l’Antiquité classique et de la renaissance carolingienne. En soulignant les parallèles iconographiques et stylistiques avec les tentures de la tombe à navire d’Oseberg, nous appliquons une nouvelle perspective contribuant à l’interprétation du motif de la femme armée et d’autres représentations figurées de la période viking. Nous faisons valoir que le thème commun de ces images n’est pas celui de la représentation d’êtres héroïques ou mythologiques, mais plutôt de la performance d’un rituel, dans lequel les femmes occupaient un rôle central. Nous envisageons les implications de la production de ce type d’objets en du contexte urbain.
Zusammenfassung
Rekonstruierte Gussformen: Rituelle Handlungen, Überschreitung der Geschlechtergrenzen und ikonographische Innovation im Ribe der Wikingerzeit von Pieterjan Deckers, Sarah Croix und Søren Sindbæk
Die Ikonographie der Wikingerzeit wird meist anhand von Funden wie Steinskulpturen und Steinmetzarbeiten sowie metallenen Kleidungsaccessoires erforscht, die oft unzureichend kontextualisiert sind. Wir verfolgen mit der Erforschung einer Ansammlung von Gussformen zur Herstellung figurativer Kleidungsaccessoires aus dem Kontext einer Werkstatt des frühen 9. Jahrhunderts in Ribe (Jütland, Dänemark) einen neuen Ansatz. Wir präsentieren digitale Rekonstruktionen der fragmentierten Gussformen, unter denen sich auch Formen für „Walküren“-Anhänger befinden, die waffentragende weibliche Figuren darstellen. Vergleichbare Funde treten in erster Linie im Westen Skandinaviens auf. Die Motive bezeugen die Vertrautheit mit Darstellungen aus der klassischen Antike und der Karolingischen Renaissance. Indem wir ikonographische und stilistische Parallelen zu den Wandteppichen der Oseberg-Schiffsbestattung ziehen, beleuchten wir die Auseinandersetzung mit dem Motiv der bewaffneten Frau und mit anderer figurativer Kunst der Wikingerzeit aus einer neuartigen Perspektive. Wir argumentieren, dass es sich beim gemeinsamen Thema der Bildnisse nicht um heldische oder mythologische Wesen handelt, sondern um rituelle Handlungen, bei denen Frauen eine zentrale Rolle spielten. Wir stellen Überlegungen zu den Auswirkungen des städtischen Herstellungskontextes auf diese Gruppe von Material an.
Riassunto
Ricomporre lo stampo completo: adempimento rituale, trasgressione di genere e innovazione iconografica nella Ribe di epoca vichinga di Pieterjan Deckers, Sarah Croix, e Søren Sindbæk
L’iconografia dell’epoca vichinga viene studiata principalmente attraverso sculture e intagli in pietra oltre che attraverso accessori di abbigliamento in metallo, reperti spesso scarsamente contestualizzati. Presentiamo qui un nuovo approccio attraverso lo studio di una raccolta di stampi per colata destinati ad accessori di abbigliamento provenienti dal contesto di un’officina di Ribe (Jutland, Danimarca) degli inizi del IX secolo. Forniamo le ricostruzioni digitali dei frammenti degli stampi, compresi i pendenti ‘Valchiria’ raffiguranti figure femminili armate. Ritrovamenti paragonabili avvengono soprattutto nella Scandinavia occidentale. I motivi dimostrano familiarità con immagini dell’antichità classica e della rinascita carolingia. Mettendo in evidenza i paralleli iconografici e stilistici con i cosiddetti arazzi della nave funeraria di Oseberg, adottiamo una prospettiva nuova nella discussione del motivo della donna armata e di altri esempi di arte figurativa di epoca vichinga. Sosteniamo che il tema comune alle immagini non è il ritratto di figure eroiche o mitologiche, ma che si tratta invece di un adempimento rituale in cui le donne rivestivano un ruolo centrale. Prendiamo in considerazione le implicazioni relative al contesto della produzione urbana di questo gruppo di materiali.
acknowledgements
We thank Claus Feveile, Judith Jesch, Else Roesdahl and two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments and suggestions on earlier versions of this paper, as well as Dirk Leonhardt, Department of Dentistry and Oral Health, Aarhus University. Further thanks for additional comments and help with compiling the catalogue of comparable finds go to Malene Beck, Trine Borake, Johan Callmer, Torben Trier Christiansen, Jane Sif Hansen, Mogens Bo Henriksen, Helle Horsnæs, Peter Pentz, Astrid Tummuscheit and Jens Ulriksen. Christina Levisen and Taylor Grace Fitzgerald kindly corrected and formatted the manuscript. We further extend our gratitude to the Graphics Department at Moesgård Museum for their assistance. This study was funded by the Carlsberg Foundation Semper Ardens grant CF16-0008: Northern Emporium. The work was further supported by the Danish National Research Foundation under the grant DNRF119 – Centre of Excellence for Urban Network Evolutions (UrbNet).
Notes
13 Croix, Deckers et al Citation2019; Croix, Deckers et al forthcoming.
28 Eg a trefoil brooch fragment repurposed as pendant, with an engraved horse on the back, from Scheelenborg, Funen (Denmark) (Beck et al Citation2019, 72), or sheet-metal horse shapes found together with other amulets (Thunmark-Nylén Citation2006, 224).
32 See eg sources cited in note 6.
34 Based on a comprehensive study of the material then available, Helmbrecht describes these items consistently as ‘Anhänger’ (2011, 68 and 306–7). The photographic inventory performed for the present discussion confirms the presence of pierced lugs on the back of most ‘Valkyrie’ pendants (a single lug for Classes 1–2, parallel lugs for Class 3). The off-centre position of these lugs towards the top of most artefacts further supports that this category of finds, generally speaking, served as pendants.
35 Further discussed and subdivided in Plochov Citation2007, 61–2.
42 Compare with the mapped proxies for Viking-Age population density and the distribution of metal-detector find-spots in Denmark (Gammeltoft et al Citation2015; Feveile Citation2015a).
47 Simek Citation2002, 97–9; Arwill-Nordbladh Citation2016. Unlike gold-foil figurines, the hair of the Ribe figure does not fall down from the knot, but this is true for some of the other female figurines from the Viking Age (eg Fig 9b, and the gaming piece from Trønninge: Mackeprang Citation1935, 242).
50 Pre-Viking gold-foil figures from Helgö, Sweden: Axboe Citation1986, fig 3; from Gudme, Denmark: Vang Petersen Citation1988, 88; from Sorte Muld, Denmark: Watt Citation2008, 42.
55 It is also worth noting that the Coppergate helmet was deposited about a century after its production.
81 Two from Tissø: Gardeła and Odebäck Citation2018, 126, nos 40–1; two from Ærø: DIME IDs 6285 and 38212; one from Hornum: Gardeła and Odebäck Citation2018, 126, nos 35; one from Aggersborg: Pedersen et al Citation2014, 288–9; one from Hjørring: DIME ID 22049.
92 Contra Vedeler (Citation2019, 117–23), who suggested that due to the presence of seemingly archaic imagery, the Oseberg tapestries were included in the burial as an old heirloom. The Oseberg burial has a dendrochronological date of ad 834 (Bonde and Christensen Citation1993).
99 Thirup Kastholm 2015, 87–8.
102 Cf ancient mystery cults, medieval passion plays, eg Petersen Citation2009.
106 Consider also that the Oseberg tapestry fragments 2 and 4, show women gripping swords just below the cross-guard, pointing downwards, in a distinctly non-martial gesture (Vedeler Citation2019, figs 68, 69).
107 Eg vífs odda ‘of the woman of weapon-points’, 1. 18 (Marold Citation2012a, kenning 6).
108 Eg eiðvandr oddneytir ‘the oath-true arrow-user’ 1. 18 (Marold Citation2012b, kenning 1).
114 Price Citation2019, 280 similarly suggests that ‘Valkyrie’ images might relate to social identities as much as religious belief.
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