Crystallography of Reactive Intermediates

ABSTRACT

Metal–ligand (M–L) multiply bonded complexes hold a central place in inorganic chemistry and catalysis: From fundamental and historical perspectives, these species have played a critical role in the articulation of important bonding principles (i.e. the vanadyl ion in the development of molecular orbital theory); from a practical perspective, these species are critical intermediates in a variety of chemical reactions (i.e. N₂ and O₂ reduction, H₂O oxidation, and C–H functionalization). For many high-valent, early metal complexes, overlap of ligand-based electrons with vacant π-symmetry orbitals leads to strong M–L multiple bonds. The stability of these species enables straightforward characterization with a suite of standard spectroscopic and diffraction-based experiments. Mid- and late-transition metal complexes, with attendant higher d-electron counts, often support more reactive M–L multiply bonded fragments. The reactivity of these species simultaneously renders them attractive intermediates for catalysis but challenging synthetic targets to observe and characterize. A number of important strategies have been advanced to enable experimental characterization of mid- to late-metal–ligand multiply bonded species. Synthetic manipulation of the coordination geometry and ligand donicity, as well as introduction of sterically encumbering ligands, have each emerged as powerful methods to tame the inherent reactivity of kinetically labile M–L multiple bonds. While these efforts have resulted in families of well-characterized complexes and provided critical insights regarding structure and bonding, the synthetic derivatization required to stabilize M–L fragments of interest often obviates the substrate functionalization activity relevant to catalysis. Photochemical synthesis of reactive species provides a conceptually attractive strategy to generate reactive M–L fragments under conditions compatible with time-resolved or cryogenic steady-state characterization, and photogeneration has enabled observation of a number of reactive M–L fragments. The suite of tools available to characterize photogenerated reactive species is often more limited than typical for kinetically stabilized complexes and structural characterization is typically not possible. Recently, photocrystallographic experiments, in which reactive M–L multiply bonded intermediates are generated within single-crystal matrices, have been advanced as a strategy to interrogate the structures of reactive intermediates in C–H functionalization. This Comment describes the historical antecedents to these experiments, highlights examples of photocrystallographic characterization of reactive intermediates, and discusses future opportunities.

Graphical Abstract

Keywords:

• Reactive intermediates
• M–L multiple bonds
• matrix isolation
• photocrystallography

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), Office of Science, Office of Basic Energy Sciences, Catalysis Program (DE-SC0018977) and the Welch Foundation (A-1907) for financial support and Drs. Yu-Sheng Chen and Shao-Liang Zheng for helpful discussions.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy [DE-SC0018977]; Welch Foundation [A-1907].