Learning Difficulties in Children with Symptoms of DCD And/or ADHD: Analyses from a Categorical and a Continuous Approach

ABSTRACT

Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) often co-occur and are associated with specific learning difficulties. Robust prevalence estimations do not yet exist. We studied how symptoms of DCD and/or ADHD are related to difficulties in reading, writing, and mathematics. Using the data from a large online study with a sample of 3,170 3rd and 4th grade children in Germany, including parent-reported DCD- and ADHD symptoms, we followed two approaches. In the categorical approach, we divided the children into groups with and without DCD and/or ADHD on the basis of cut-offs. The results showed that children without DCD/ADHD have fewer difficulties in all learning domains. Children with only DCD showed less learning difficulties than children with ADHD and the comorbid group. In the continuous approach, we performed a latent profile analysis on the basis of symptoms of fine and gross motor problems, inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity, and intelligence. This yielded four disability profiles of children with (1) no DCD- or ADHD-symptoms, (2) clinical ADHD-scores and above-average DCD, (3) above-average DCD and inattention, and (4) above-average ADHD. Profiles 2 and 3 appeared related to the lowest learning achievement. Theoretical implications are discussed.

KEYWORDS:

• ADHD
• DCD
• inattention
• reading
• writing
• mathematics

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the children and their parents for participating in the online study. Also, we would like to thank our collaborators in the online study, Prof. Schulte-Körne, Dr. Julia Kalmar, Ruth Görgen, Dr. Josefine Rothe (Ludwig-Maximilian-University Munich) and Katharina Grunwald and Janosch Linkersdörfer (DIPF Frankfurt), for realising the study and for allowing us to use the data for the current paper.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) under Grant No. 01GJ1601B  to the DIPF.