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Abstract
The teaching research system was established after the founding of New China in emulation of the Soviet Union for the purpose of learning, research and teaching management, with the aim of promoting improvement in the caliber of primary and secondary school teaching and guaranteeing the quality of education. The system played an important role in the construction and development of education in New China and ensuring the quality of education. The system also made unique contributions with respect to teacher learning: the routine practice of teaching research which it established fostered habits of daily learning and research in teachers, with the result that this practice permeated teachers’ careers, spurring their professional development. This design also caused teachers’ daily work to be rooted in research, raising the level of professionalism in teaching, and ensuring the basic quality of education. It gave rise to a teaching professional learning community in the Chinese environment, moving teachers’ work out of isolation, and allowing it to unfold within a supportive peer environment. However, in the face of the new era, there is still considerable room for the improvement of teaching research organizations as learning communities.
Notes
1 We generally refer to the period after October 1, 1949, when the Chinese Communist Party came to power and founded the People’s Republic of China, as New China.
2 The Cultural Revolution, known in full as the “Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution,” refers to a political movement in China spanning the period from May 16, 1966, to October 1976, which was erroneously initiated and led by Mao Zedong 毛泽东, and exploited by the counterrevolutionary cliques formed by Lin Biao 林彪 and Jiang Qing 江青, ushering in grave misfortunes for the Chinese people. It is widely regarded as a disastrous period featuring the greatest turmoil since the country was founded in 1949.
3 Zhongguo renmin zhengzhi xieshang huiyi gongtong gangling (Common program of The Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference). 9.29.1949. http://news.qq.com/a/20111116/000896_2.htm.
4 In the example of Beijing, in 1953, the number of Beijing senior high school graduates with average college entrance examination scores below the 60-point passing score represented 78% of the total number of examinees. Students’ average scores were below 60 at a majority of schools, and some schools even had an average score of less than 40. In the same year, 51% of graduates from senior primary school failed the junior high school entrance examination. Qian Weichang 钱伟长, a Dean of Studies at Tsinghua University, reported uneven attainments among the 1,700 or so students admitted through the unified entrance examination of 1952. Three hundred or so of these students had extremely poor foundations, lacking a solid grasp even of junior high school subjects, and were eliminated due to being unable to keep up with the pace of learning in class. Guo Xiaoyan. “‘Wusi jueding’ de zhiding, guanche yu lijing de monan” (The formulation and implementation of the ‘Decision of ‘Fifty-Four’ and the ensuing tribulations). Beijing dangshi (Beijing Party History) 2001 (3):38–39.
5 “Jiaoyu bu yinfa guanyu jiaqiang he fazhan shifan jiaoyu de yijian” (Opinions issued by the Ministry of Education on strengthening and developing normal education). 10.12.1978. In Zhongguo renmin gongheguo zhongyao jiaoyu wenxian (1976–1990), ed. He Dongchang, 1649.
6 “Jiaoyu bu guanyu shixing quanri zhi shi’er nianzhi zhong xiaoxue xin jiaoxue jihua (cao’an) de tongzhi” (Notice of the Ministry of Education on the implementation of the new full-time twelve-year primary and secondary school education program [draft]). In Zhongguo renmin gongheguo zhongyao jiaoyu wenxian (1949–1975), ed. He Dongchang, 1202–1203.
7 Ivan Kairov’s five-step teaching method originally had six steps: Step 1: The students take their seats and prepare for class, while the teacher checks off the absent students; Step 2: Reviewing the students’ assignments; Step 3: Explaining the new topic and aims of the lesson, while highlighting the connection with previously studied lessons; Step 4: Explaining and describing the new teaching materials; Step 5: Consolidating the previously studied teaching materials; and Step 6: Describing the new homework in detail. When China later compiled its own textbooks, using Kairov’s Pedagogika as a blueprint, Steps 3 and 4 were merged to form a five-step teaching method (organization for teaching, review of old knowledge, instruction in the new lesson, consolidation and drills, and assignment of homework). See Ivan Kairov. Jiaoyuxue (Pedagogika). Translated by Shen Ying, Nan Zhishan et al. Beijing: Renmin jiaoyu chubanshe, 1953, 134–138.
8 “Jiaoyu bu guanyu Zhongguo renmin daxue shishi jihua de jueding” (Decision of the Ministry of Education on the plan for implementation at Renmin University of China). 12.16.1949. In Zhongguo renmin gongheguo zhongyao jiaoyu wenxian (1949–1975), ed. He Dongchang. See also Cheng Fangwu. “Zhongguo renmin daxue de jiaoyan shi gongzuo” (The work of Renmin University of China on teaching research sections), Renmin jiaoyu (People’s Education) 1951 (4):11–12; Hu Xikui. “Zhongguo renmin daxue de jianlüe jieshao” (A brief introduction to Renmin University of China). Renmin jiaoyu 1951 (1):20–23; Yan Mingxing. “Sulian zhuanjia dui Hagongda fazhan jianshe de gongxian” (The contributions of Soviet experts to the development and construction of Harbin Institute of Technology). http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_772237630102w5nq.html; “Beijing shifan daxue zanxing guicheng” (Provisional regulations of Beijing Normal University). In Zhongguo renmin gongheguo zhongyao jiaoyu wenxian (1949–1975), ed. He Dongchang, 15.
9 “Gaodeng xuexiao zanxing guicheng” (Provisional regulations for institutions of higher education). In Zhongguo renmin gongheguo zhongyao jiaoyu wenxian (1949–1975), ed. He Dongchang, 45.
10 Editorial Board for the Encyclopedia of Education in China (ed.), Zhongguo jiaoyu shidian: zhongdeng jiaoyu juan (Encyclopedia of education in China: secondary education volume). Hebei jiaoyu chubanshe, 1994, 837.
11 Hunan Changsha No. 1 High School, Hunan sheng Changsha yi zhong (Hunan Changsha No. 1 High School). Beijing: Renmin jiaoyu chubanshe, 1997, 137.
12 “Zhongxue zanxing guicheng (cao’an)” (Provisional regulations for secondary schools [draft]), “Xiaoxue zanxing guicheng (cao’an)” (Provisional regulations for primary schools [draft]). In Zhongguo renmin gongheguo zhongyao jiaoyu wenxian (1949–1975), ed. He Dongchang, 140, 142.
13 “Zhongxue jiaoxue yanjiu zu gongzuo tiaoli (cao’an)” (Working regulations for secondary school teaching research groups [draft]) and “Guanyu ‘Zhongxue jiaoxue yanjiu zu gongzuo tiaoli (cao’an)’ de shuoming’” (Instructions regarding the ‘working regulations for secondary school teaching research groups [draft]). In Zhongguo renmin gongheguo zhongyao jiaoyu wenxian (1949–1975), ed. He Dongchang, 720.
14 Staff Commentator. “Dali jiaqiang zhong xiaoxue zaizhi jiaoshi de peixun gongzuo” (Vigorously promoting training work for in-service primary and secondary school teachers). Renmin jiaoyu 1977 (4):38–40.
15 “Jiaoyu bu guanyu shixing ‘Quanri zhi zhongxue zanxing gongzuo tiaoli (cao’an)’ he ‘Quanri zhi xiaoxue zanxing gongzuo tiaoli (cao’an)’ de tongzhi” (Notice of the Ministry of Education on the trial implementation of the ‘Provisional working regulations for full-time secondary schools [draft] and ‘Provisional working regulations for full-time primary schools [draft]’). 9.22.1978. In Zhongguo renmin gongheguo zhongyao jiaoyu wenxian (1976–1990), ed. He Dongchang, 1630.
16 “Liu Xiyao tongzhi zai quanguo jiaoyu gongzuo huiyi shang de baogao he zongjie” (Report and summary by Comrade Liu Xiyao at the National Conference on Education Work). 7.8.1978. In Zhongguo renmin gongheguo zhongyao jiaoyu wenxian (1976–1990), ed. He Dongchang, 1615.
17 “Shelun: wei jianshe xitong de jiaoshi jinxiu zhidu er fendou” (Editorial: striving to build a systematic teacher training system). Renmin jiaoyu 1952 (9):4.
18 “Ge shengshi jiaoyu tingju bixu jiaqiang jiaoxue yanjiu gongzuo” (All provincial and municipal departments and bureaus of education must strengthen teaching research work). Renmin jiaoyu 1955 (11):17–18.
19 “Jiaoyu bu yinfa ‘Guanyu jiaqiang zhong xiaoxue zaizhi jiaoshi peixun gongzuo yijian’ deng sange wenjian tongzhi” (Notice of the Ministry of Education on the issuance of three documents, including the ‘Recommendations on strengthening training work for in-service primary and secondary school teachers’). In Zhongguo renmin gongheguo zhongyao jiaoyu wenxian (1976–1990), ed. He Dongchang, 1832.
20 “Di san zhang jiaoyu yanjiu” (Third study on education), Songjiang Xianzhi (Songjiang County Gazette) (Shanghai), vol. 22, http://www.shtong.gov.cn/node2/node4/node2249/changning/index.html/, cited in Yin Guirong, “Xin Zhongguo jichu jiaoyu jiaoyan tixi de lishi yanbian yu xianshi zhuiqiu” (The historical evolution and practical pursuits of the teaching research system for basic education in New China). Hunan Normal University, 2006, 16–17.
21 Guo Moruo, “Guanyu wenhua jiaoyu gongzuo de baogao—zai renmin zhengxie quanguo weiyuanhui di er ci huiyi shang de baogao” (Report on cultural education work—a report at the second conference of the National Committee of the People’s Political Consultative Conference); Qian Junrui. “Yong geming de banfa banhao renmin jiaoyu—zai di yi ci quanguo chudeng jiaoyu yu shifan jiaoyu huiyi shang de zongjie baogao.” In Zhongguo renmin gongheguo zhongyao jiaoyu wenxian (1949–1975), ed. He Dongchang, 29, 116–117.
22 The May 4th Movement was a patriotic movement in Beijing on May 4, 1919, mainly involving young students, the masses, citizens, businessmen and other social strata, and carried out in various forms such as demonstrations, petitions, strikes and violent confrontations with the government. The “May 4th” period mentioned in the passage does not refer to the day of May 4, but to a period. In this period, some advanced intellectuals, under the banner of “democracy” and “science,” launched a fierce attack against the decadent feudal forces.
23 “Jiaoyu bu guanyu zuzhi zhong xiaoxue jiaoshi kaizhan xuexi weiwu zhuyi sixiang he pipan zichan jieji weixin zhuyi sixiang de tongzhi” (Notice of the Ministry of Education on organizing primary and secondary school teachers to engage in the study of materialist thought and criticism of bourgeois idealist thought). In Zhongguo renmin gongheguo zhongyao jiaoyu wenxian (1949–1975), ed. He Dongchang, 446.
24 Tianjin Nankai High School, “Tigao jiaoshi yewu shuiping de jidian zuofa—Beijing, Tianjin bufen zhongxue banxue jingyan zuotan hui cailiao” (Several methods for improving the professional competence of teachers—proceedings of the Forum on the Experiences of Certain Beijing and Tianjin Secondary Schools in School Administration), Renmin jiaoyu 1963 (6):19–22.
25 Translator’s note: “Double-basic” (双基 shuangji) teaching refers to instruction in basic knowledge and basic skills.
26 “Di qijie jiaoxue yanjiu he jiaoyu kexue yanjiu” (The seventh study of teaching research and educational science). http://www.lzyz.org/pictures/xxxc/xsyg/xb/5-9/6-7.htm.
27 Centralized literacy and decentralized literacy represented two opposing viewpoints within literacy education. Centralized literacy focused on literacy education for the lower primary grades, with the students intensively studying 2000–2500 common characters over the course of two years in a process temporarily divorced from the text, and thereafter proceeding with training in reading and writing. Some referred to this as “learning characters first, and reading later.” See Xiong Ming’an and Yu Benfa. Zhongguo dangdai jiaoyu shiyan shi (A history of contemporary experiments in education in China). Shandong jiaoyu chubanshe, 2005, 208.
28 Xiong Ming’an and Yu Benfa, Zhongguo dangdai jiaoyu shiyan shi, 227; Xiao Yuxiu and Luo Min. “Xiaoxue di nianji shizi jiaoxue de xinlixue tantao—Si Xia laoshi de ‘zi bu li ci, ci bu li ju’ shizi jiaoxue fangfa” (A psychological exploration of literacy education for the lower primary grades—Teacher Si Xia’s method of literacy education in which ‘characters are not separate from words, and words are not separate from sentences’). Renmin jiaoyu 1962 (4):28–32.
29 The “eight-character teaching method” is an abbreviation for the teaching method “read, discuss, lecture, drill.” See Xiong Ming’an and Yu Benfa. Zhongguo dangdai jiaoyu shiyan shi, 238.
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Yan Hu
Yan Hu is affiliated with the Center for Teacher Education Research of Beijing Normal University, Key Research Institute of Humanities and Social Sciences for Universities, Ministry of Education.