From Decentralization to Coordination: The Evolution of Russian Paradiplomacy (1991 – 2021)

ABSTRACT

The study of paradiplomacy—the international relations of sub-state regions—has devoted its attention to understanding the ways opportunity structures shape regions’ external policies. This article contributes to this approach with a systematic exploration of the evolution of paradiplomacy structures in post-Communist Russia. Shifting trends in centralization and geopolitical orientation, as well as patterns of economic growth and stagnation, are the factors that open and close opportunities for regions to act internationally. Accordingly, we propose a periodization of Russian paradiplomacy: 1991–1999, 2000–2013, and 2014 on. We also introduce a classification of the disposition of regions to exploit these opportunities and act abroad.

Acknowledgments

The coauthors of this article are listed alphabetically and contributed equally to this paper. The authors are grateful to the two anonymous reviewers of this paper for their feedback and comments.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1. It should be noted that there are individuals in the Federal authorities who are aware of the wrongness of the situation. They spoke publicly. Alexey Kudrin, former Finance Minister of the Russian Federation and now head of the Accounting Chamber, stated in 2017 that the regions “should be given more budget freedom”. The current Finance Minister of Russia, Anton Siluanov, is also inclined to return some of the powers in the financial sphere to the regions. The problem is that no serious steps are being taken in this direction. See Anton Siluanov’s Report on the prospects for the development of inter-budgetary relations (Russian Government website 2018; Vedomosti 2017).

2. Regions often gained experience in international cooperation through contacts made at the International Socialist Commonwealth. For example, the Republic of Komi (Komi ASSR) developed cooperation with the People’s Republic of Bulgaria. About twenty thousand Bulgarians permanently lived on the territory of Komi in the 1960–1980s, primarily engaged in logging. In Syktyvkar (the capital of Komi ASSR) there operated a Bulgarian Consulate and a Representative Office of the USSR Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Although the Republican authorities first of all implemented the decisions sent in by Moscow when engaging with other countries, at the same time they gained experience in engaging international partners. In addition, they learned how to interact with the Foreign Ministry and other Central authorities on international issues (Agreement … 1991; An Agreement …, 1993). These skills would come into play later in the post-Soviet era.