The relationship between community policing and human rights in Albania's police reform

Abstract

Community policing is considered by the leadership of the Albanian police as central to delivering democratic policing in the country. It has been enshrined in the national and local police strategies that call for a close cooperation between police, local authorities and non-governmental organisations in identifying and addressing local policing needs. The implementation of such initiative is an attempt to refocus police reform in Albania towards guaranteeing respect for human rights, which, in turn, influences the relationship between police and the citizens as a cornerstone of democracy. However, there is a gap between the planned reforms and their implementation on the ground. It is also not clear to what extent community policing programmes in Albania tally with local conditions. The experience so far indicates that community policing reform initiatives in Albania, often conceptualised and overseen by Western experts, have been more about exporting an ideology than a change of practice. Whilst the concept can be seen as a useful vehicle to improve police–public relations and encourage police's adherence to human rights, community policing in Albania has been shown to have had little effect on reducing crime rates.

Keywords:

• community policing
• human rights
• police reform
• crime
• legitimacy
• Albania

Notes on contributors

Arianit Koci, MA in Public Order, has studied at the Department of Criminology, Leicester University, UK. He is a broadcast journalist with the BBC World Service. A former senior police officer in Albania during the post-communist years of early 1990s, he was research officer at Leicester University from 1993 to 2000 carrying out postgraduate teaching and extensive research funded by the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) and the European Union on the police reform in Hungary, Lithuania and Albania. In 2010 he was a visiting lecturer at the European University of Tirana, Albania. He has presented several papers on police reform in Albania at international conferences and workshops. His publications include ‘Policing Social Transition: Public Order Policing Change in Lithuania’, Policing, A Journal of Policy and Practice 1, no. 4 (2007), 428–437.

Tonin Gjuraj completed his PhD in Sociology at the University of Tirana, Albania and postdoctoral studies and research at St Anthony's College, University of Oxford, UK. He also has an MA in Society and Politics from the Central European University, Prague, Czech Republic and a BA in English Philology from the University of Tirana. He has completed various courses of specialisation in democratic citizenship education at the University of Washington, Seattle as well as in universities in various other countries, including Norway, Poland, Italy, Hungary, the Netherlands and Germany. He has considerable experience in teaching at university level as well as in working for national and international agencies on religious issues and democracy, civil society and blood-feuds studies. He has published widely, in and outside his country. He served as Ambassador of the Republic of Albania to the State of Israel (2007–2009). Currently, he is serving as the rector of the European University of Tirana, Albania.

Notes

1. Institute for Democracy and Mediation, Context Analysis & Chronology of the Security Sector Reform in Albania 1991–2009 (Tirana: Institute for Democracy and Mediation, 2011), 4–35.

2. See Arianit Koci, ‘Police Reform in Post-communist Albania: a Failed Experience?’, The International Journal of Albanian Studies II, no. 1 (1998), 77–93; Stephan Hensell, ‘The Patrimonial Logic of the Police in Eastern Europe’, Europe-Asia Studies 64, no. 5 (2012), 811–833.

3. Ministria e Brendshme [Ministry of Interior] Strategjia e Policise se Shtetit 2007–2013 [Strategy of State Police 2007–2013], 12, http://www.moi.gov.al/drupal1/pdf/Strategjia_e_Policise_se_Shtetit_2007–2013.pdf (accessed July 14, 2012).

4. Michael Rowe, Introduction to Policing (London: Sage, 2008); P. A. J Waddington, Policing Citizens (London: Routledge, 1999); Mike Brogden and Preeti Nijhar, Community Policing: National and International Models and Approaches (Devon: Willan Publishing, 2005); Peter Neyroud and Alan Beckley, Policing, Ethics and Human Rights (Devon: Willan Publishing, 2004).

5. Field research for this article was made possible through a grant from the European University of Tirana, Albania.

6. Rowe, Introduction to Policing; Brogden and Nijhar, Community Policing; Neyroud and Beckley, Policing, Ethics and Human Rights.

7. Mike King, ‘Policing Change in Eastern and Central Europe: some Contemporary Concerns’, Innovations: The European Journal of Social Science Research 11, no. 4 (1998). King argues that changes in policing in most European post-communist countries largely fell into this category.

8. Koci, ‘Police Reform in Post-Communist Albania’.

9. Ibid.

10. Arjan Dyrmishi, ‘Permbledhje e Diskutimeve dhe Konkluzioneve ne Panelit I’, Konferenca Kombetare '20 vjet Reforma ne Sektorin e Sigurise ne Shqiperi' [Summary of Discussions and Conclusions of Panel I, National Conference: “20 years of Reform in Albania’s Security Sector”] (Tirane: Instituti per Demokraci dhe Ndermjetesim [Institute for Democracy and Mediation], 2012), 32–34.

11. Robert Reiner, ‘Policing a Postmodern Society’, Modern Law Review 55, no. 6 (1992), 762

12. European Convention on Human Rights, http://www.echr.coe.int/NR/rdonlyres/D5CC24A7-DC13-4318-B457-5C9014916D7A/0/Convention_ENG.pdf (accessed April 30, 2013).

13. Waddington, Policing Citizens.

14. Ibid.

15. Peter Joyce, Policing: Development and Contemporary Practice (London: Sage, 2011); Rowe, Introduction to Policing; Brogden and Nijhar, Community Policing.

16. Rowe, Introduction to Policing, 71.

17. Ibid., 72.

18. Wesley Skogan, ‘The Promise of Community Policing’, in Police Innovations: Contrasting Perspectives, ed. David Weisburd and Anthony Braga (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 24–43, cited in Rowe, Introduction to Policing, 72.

19. Robert Trajanowicz and Bonnie Bucqueroux, Community Policing: A Contemporary Perspective (Cincinati, OH: Anderson, 1990); Quint Thurman, Jihong Zhao and Andrew Giacomazzi, Community Policing in a Community Era: An Introduction and Exploration (Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury Publishing Company, 2001).

20. Thurman et al., Community Policing in a Community Era.

21. Rowe, Introduction to Policing, 73.

22. Thurman et al., Community Policing in a Community Era.

23. Rowe, Introduction to Policing, 74.

24. Brogden and Nijhar, Community Policing, 2.

25. Neyroud and Beckley, Policing, Ethics and Human Rights.

26. Brodgen and Nijhar, Community Policing, provides a more detailed analysis of how community policing was exported from the United States to other Western countries and further afield to Eastern Europe, Africa and Asia.

27. Neyroud and Beckley, Policing, Ethics and Human Rights

28. Ibid., 11.

29. Ibid., 10.

30. Ibid.

31. Jihong Zhao, Nicholas P. Lovrich and Quint Thurman, ‘Community-oriented Policing across the US: Facilitators and Impediments to Implementation’, American Journal of Police 14, no. 1 (1995), 11–28, cited in Brogden and Nijhar, Community Policing, 26.

32. Brodgen and Nijhar, Community Policing, 26.

33. Ibid.

34. Waddington, Policing Citizens, 207.

35. Ibid.

36. Mike McConville and Dan Shepherd, Watching Police, Watching Communities (London: Routledge, 1992), cited in Waddington, Policing Citizens, 208.

37. Waddington, Policing Citizens, 208.

38. Joyce, Policing, 71.

39. John Benyon, Scarman and After: Essays Reflecting on Lord Scarman's Report, the Riots and their Aftermath, (London: Pergamon, 1984).

40. Joyce, Policing.

41. Waddington Policing Citizens, 209.

42. Robert Friedman, Community Policing: Comparative Perspectives and Prospects (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1992).

43. McConville and Shepherd, Watching Police, Watching Communities; and Waddington, Policing Citizens, 213.

44. Ibid.

45. Rowe, Introduction to Policing, 78.

46. Brodgen and Nijhar, Community Policing; Waddington, Policing Citizens.

47. Waddington, Policing Citizens.

48. Ibid., 223.

49. Philip Rawlings, ‘Bobbies, Aliens and Subversives: The Relationship between Community Policing and Coercive Policing’, in Police: The Constitution and the Community, ed. J. Baxter and L. Koffman (London: Professional Books, 1985), 72–90, cited in Waddington, Policing Citizens, 223.

50. Brodgen and Nijhar, Community Policing, 4–5.

51. Ibid., 2.

52. Interview with a police trainer at the Basic Police Training School, Tirana, May 2012.

53. In the wake of the 1997 rebellion which brought about the near collapse of state institutions in Albania, the EU and the US government sent long-term missions to the country, PAMECA (Police Assistance Mission of the European Community to Albania) and ICITAP (International Criminal Investigative Training Assistance Programme), respectively, to assist in rebuilding the state police.

54. Ministria e Brendshme [Ministry of Interior], Strategjia e Policise se Shtetit 2007–2013 [Strategy of State Police 2006–2013].

55. For a more detailed analysis, see Koci ‘Police Reform in Post-Communist Albania’.

56. H. Shkembi, Histori e Policise [History of Police] (Tirane: Shtepia Botuese Gurra, 1996).

57. Ibid.

58. Luise Shelley, ‘The Sources of Soviet Policing’, Police Studies xvii, no. 2 (1994), 49–65.

59. David Fogel, Policing in Central and Eastern Europe – Report on a Study Tour (Helsinki: HEUNI, 1994).

60. Mary O'Rawe, ‘Human Rights, Transitional Societies and Police Training: Legitimating Strategies and Delegitimating Legacies’, Journal of Civil Rights and Economic Development 22, no. 1 (2007), 7.

61. Ministria e Rendit Publik [Ministry of Public Order], ‘Ligj per Policine e Rendit’ [Law on Public Order Police], Nr 7504, Fletore Zyrtare [Official Gazzete], Nr 5, http://80.78.70.231/pls/kuv/fletore_zyrtare?nr=2&v=1991# (accessed January 11, 2013).

62. Ibid.

63. Shinasi Rama, ‘Failed Transition, Elite Fragmentation and the Parliamentary Elections of June 29, 1997′, The International Journal of Albanian Studies 1, no. 1 (1997), 82–125.

64. Ibid.

65. Elez Biberaj, Albania in Transition: The Rocky Road to Democracy (Oxford: Westview Press, 1998).

66. Miranda Vickers and James Pettifer, Albania: From Anarchy to a Balkan Identity (London: Hurst & Company, 1997).

67. Ibid.

68. Interview with mid-ranking police officer in Shkodra, May 2012.

69. Interview with low-ranking police officer in Tirana, May 2012.

70. Vickers and Pettifer, Albania: From Anarchy to a Balkan Identity; Biberaj, Albania in Transition: The Rocky Road to Democracy.

71. John Brewer et al., The Police, Public Order and the State: Policing in Great Britain, Northern Ireland, the Irish Republic, the USA, Israel, South Africa and China, 2nd ed. (London: Macmillan Press, 1992).

72. Koci, ‘Police Reform in Post-Communist Albania’.

73. Institute for Democracy and Mediation, Context Analysis and Chronology of the Security Sector Reform in Albania 1991–2009, 17.

74. Ibid.

75. A significant contribution to this debate has been made by the Tirana based security studies think-tank, the Institute for Democracy and Mediation. For the past decade the Institute for Democracy and Mediation has spearheaded much of the debate through the publication of policy documents, the conducting of surveys and the organisation of annual conferences for senior police officers and policing experts.

76. Institute for Democracy and Mediation, Context Analysis and Chronology of the Security Sector Reform in Albania 1991–2009.

77. Xhevair Karaj, ‘Pervoja e Shkodres ne Grupet Konsultative Polici-Komunitet’ [Shkodra's experience in establishing Police-Community consultation groups], in Besimi Publik Sfide per Policine 2 [Public Trust, a Police Challenge], Instituti per Democraci dhe Ndermjetesim [Institute for Democracy and Mediation] (Tirane: Botimet Toena, 2003), 68–71.

78. Ibid.

79. Ibid.

80. Bajram Ibraj, Llogaridhenia Publike duhet te realizohet nga gjithe Policia e Shtetit [All State Police should implement public accountability], in Besimi Publik Sfide per Policine 2 [Public Trust, a Police Challenge], Instituti per Democraci dhe Ndermjetesim [Institute for Democracy and Mediation] (Tirane: Botimet Toena, 2003), 18–23.

81. Hasan Shkembi, ‘Policimi ne Komunitet: Arritje dhe Sfida’ [Community Policing: Achievements and Challenges], in Besimi Publik Sfide per Policine 5 [Public Trust, a Police Challenge], Instituti per Democraci dhe Ndermjetesim [Institute for Democracy and Mediation] (Tirane: Botimet Toena, 2007), 75.

82. Ibid., 70.

83. Ibid., 76.

84. Ibid., 80.

85. Hensell, ‘The Patrimonial Logic of the Police in Eastern Europe’.

86. Ministria Brendshme [Ministry of Interior], Strategjia e Policise se Shtetit 2007–2013 [Strategy of State Police 2007–2013], 12.

87. Ibid., 13.

88. Amnesty International, Albania Report 2010, http://www.amnesty.org/en/region/albania/report-2010, (accessed May 2, 2013).

89. Ibid.

90. Avokati i Popullit, Raport per Veprimtarine e Avokatit te Popullit 1 Janar – 31 Dhjetor viti 2011, [Ombudsman's report, 1 January–31 December 2001] http://www.avokatipopullit.gov.al/Raporte/Raporti_2011.pdf (accessed August 29, 2012).

91. Ibid., 34.

92. Ibid., 40.

93. Ibid., 39.

94. Ibid., 57.

95. Hensell, ‘The Patrimonial Logic of the Police in Eastern Europe’, 811.

96. ‘Erzen Breçani thrrje extreme: Rama Hitler, ta shporrim’ [Erzen Breçani makes extreme demand: Rama is like Hitler, we should get rid of him], Shqiptarja.com, July 2, 2013, http://www.shqiptarja.com/m/home/erzen-brecani-thirrje-ekstreme-rama-hitler-ta-shporrim-165083.html (accessed September 12, 2013).

97. ‘Tahiri: Shkarkoni Breçanin! Tregoni se shteti e ligji jane principe, pavaresisht se kush qeveris’ [Tahiri: Sack Breçani! Show that the state and law are principles regardless who is in power], in Panorama, July 2, 2013, national edition, http://www.panorama.com.al/2013/07/02/tahiri-shkarkoni-brecanin-tregoni-se-shteti-e-ligji-jane-principe-qe-vlejne-pavaresisht-se-kush-qeveris/ (accessed September 12, 2013).

98. Keshilli i Ministrave [Prime Minister's Office], ‘Kryeministri Berisha pershendet ceremonine e organizuar me rastin e 100 vjetorit te themelimit te Policise se Shtetit shqiptar’ [Prime Minister Berisha addresses ceremony on the 100 anniversary of the Albanian State Police], http://www.km.gov.al/?fq=brenda&m=news&lid=17632 (accessed January 14, 2013).

99. Edi Rama, ‘Program kunder krimit dhe shkaqeve te krimit’ [Programme to fight crime and its causes], http://edirama.al/fjalime/476-program-kunder-krimit-dhe-shkaqeve-te-krimit (accessed February 10, 2012).

100. Ibid.

101. Alenca per Shqiperine Europiane [Alliance for a European Albania], Programi I Qeverise 2013–2017 [Government Programme 2013–2017], http://www.ps.al/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Programi-i-Qeverise-WEB.pdf (accessed September 12, 2013).

102. Ministria e Brendshme [Ministry of Interior], Plan Veprimi per Implementimin e Policimit ne Komunitet [Action Plan for the Implementation of Community Policing] (Tirana: Ministria Brendshme, 2008). This is an internal document presented to the authors in the course of interviews with senior police officials in Tirana – May 2012.

103. Interview with senior police officer, conducted in Tirana in May 2012.

104. Ministria e Brendshme [Ministry of Interior], Strategjia e Policise se Shtetit 2007–2013 [Strategy of State Police 2007–2013].

105. Interview with senior police officers, conducted in Tirana in May 2012.

106. Ibid.

107. Interviews with a retired senior police officer, a lecturer at the Basic Training Police School and an acting senior police officer, conducted in May 2012, Tirana and Shkodra.

108. Waddington, Policing Citizens; Rowe, Introduction to Policing; Joyce, Policing; Brogden and Nijhar, Community Policing.

109. Instituti per Demokraci dhe Ndermjetesim [Institute for Democracy and Mediation], ‘A jane reale statistikat e zbulimit te krimin ne Shqiperi’ [How realistic are crime statistics in Albania], in Besimi Publik Sfide per Policine 3 [Public Trust, a Police Challenge] (Tirana: Botimet Toena, 2004), 51–54; Jospeh Hauer, ‘Statistikat e Krimit ne Shqiperi, Strategji per Menaxhimin e Burimeve dhe zhvillimin e Strategjive Parandaluese’ [Crime Statistics in Albania, a strategy for the management of resources and the development of preventive strategies], in Besimi Publik Sfide per Policine 5 [Public Trust, a Police Challenge], Instituti per Demokraci dhe Ndermjetesim [Institute for Democracy and Mediation] (Tirane: Botimet Toena, 2007), 104–106.

110. Prokuroria e Pergjithshme [General Prosecutor's Office], Raportim i Prokurores se Pergjithshme mbi gjendjen e kriminalitetit ne Shqiperi per vitin 2010 [Report of the General Prosecutor on the crime situation in Albania for 2010], 3; and Raportim i Prokurores se Pergjithshme mbi gjendjen e kriminalitetit ne Shqiperi per vitin 2008 [Report of the General Prosecutor on the crime situation in Albania for 2008], 2, http://www.pp.gov.al/, (accessed August 15, 2012).

111. Ministria e Brendshme [Ministry of Interior], Veprimtaria e Policise se Shtetit per Vitin 2011 [State Police Activity for 2011], http://www.asp.gov.al/images/pdf/2012/19analiza%202011.pdf (accessed August 20, 2012).

112. European Sourcebook of Crime and Criminal Justice Statistics – 2010, 37–39, http://www.europeansourcebook.org/ob285_full.pdf (accessed August 30, 2012).

113. This issue was underlined during interviews conducted as part of our field research in Tirana and Shkodra in May 2012.

114. Ministria e Brendshme [Ministry of Interior], Strategjia e Policise se Shtetit 2007–2013 [Strategy of State Police 2007–2013], 9. The document points out that political interference is seen as a potential danger to the implementation of the community policing model in Albania. Other potential dangers it identifies include the frequent changes of personnel and resistance among police ranks to embrace this new policing philosophy.

115. Brogden and Nijhar, Community Policing.